天麻种子与真菌共生萌发的蛋白组学研究

天麻Gastrodia elata是典型的腐生型兰科药用植物,其种子萌发需要小菇属Mycena真菌的侵染和共生,目前天麻种子共生萌发分子机制是该领域的热点问题。我们首次对天麻种子共生萌发过程进行了系统的蛋白质组学研究。采用iTRAQ标记的液质联用技术,成功鉴定了天麻成熟种子和萌发后原球茎的蛋白质组,共鉴定蛋白1 769个（global FDR 1%）。两组进行了差异蛋白质组学研究,获得差异蛋白269个。差异蛋白GO注释结果表明,在天麻种子共生萌发过程中,差异蛋白参与的功能和生物过程多样,以催化和结合为主,还参与感知环境刺激、分子信号等功能。KEGG代谢通路分析表明,差异蛋白还主要参与了转导、能量代谢、次生代谢和环境适应等过程。我们发现,一些参与内吞作用的蛋白在共生萌发过程中存在差异表达,表明内吞可能参与到二者互作过程中。对差异蛋白质组的深入解析和研究有利于揭示天麻种子共生萌发的分子机制,具有较强的理论和现实意义。     

天麻种子萌发过程中与其共生真菌石斛小菇间的相互作用

天麻Ｇａｓｔｒｏｄｉａ ｅｌａｔａ种子与石斛小菇Ｍｙｃｅｎａ ｄｅｎｄｒｏｂｉｉ的共生萌发试验表明,石斛小菇可与天麻共生,促进天麻种子发芽并形成原球茎。菌丝主要分布于原球茎的柄状细胞、外皮层细胞和内皮层细胞,在外皮层细胞中形成菌丝结,内皮层细胞中的菌丝则被消化。原球茎细胞中的菌丝均被电子透明物质和原球茎细胞质膜包围而与球茎细胞质相隔离,菌丝进一步液泡化并最终被水解。含有衰败菌丝的原球茎细胞常被菌丝     

菌根真菌一新种——石斛小菇

从云南省野生铁皮石斛根中分离出一菌根真菌,经系统形态学研究后,将其鉴定为小菇属一新种：石斛小菇。标本保藏在中国科学院微生物研究所菌物标本室（ＨＭＡＳ）。用石斛小菇伴播１２种兰科植物种子,实验结果表明该真菌对天麻和密花石斛种子萌发有明显促进作用。     

菌根真菌─新种─—石斛小菇(英文)

从云南省野生铁皮石斛（Dendrobiumcandidumwall．ExLindl．）根中分离出一菌根真菌,经系统形态学研究后,将其鉴定为小菇属（Mycena）一新种：石斛小菇（Mycenadendrobii）。标本保藏在中国科学院微生物研究所菌物标本室（HMAS）。用石斛小菇伴播12种兰科植物种子,实验结果表明该真菌对天麻（Gastrodiaelata）和密花石斛（Dendrobiumdensdlorum）种子萌发有明显促进作用。     

菌根真菌一新种一石斛小菇

从云南省野生铁皮石斛(Dendrobium candidum wall. Ex Lindl.)根中分离出一菌根真菌,经系统形态学研究后,将其鉴定为小菇属(Mycena)一新种：石斛小菇(Mycenadendrobii)。标本保藏在中国科学院微生物研究所菌物标本室(HMAS)。用石斛小菇伴播12种兰科植物种子,实验结果表明该真菌对天麻(Gastrodia elata)和密花石斛(Dendrobum densiflorum)种子萌发有明显促进作用。     

天麻种子萌发过程中与其共生真菌石斛小菇间的相互作用*

天麻Gastrodiaelata种子与石斛小菇Mycenadendrobii的共生萌发试验表明,石斛小菇可与天麻共生,促进天麻种子发芽并形成原球茎。菌丝主要分布于原球茎的柄状细胞、外皮层细胞和内皮层细胞,在外皮层细胞中形成菌丝结,内皮层细胞中的菌丝则被消化。原球茎细胞中的菌丝均被电子透明物质和原球茎细胞质膜包围而与原球茎细胞质相隔离,菌丝进一步液泡化并最终被水解。含有衰败菌丝的原球茎细胞常被菌丝重新定殖。这一菌丝被消化及菌丝的重新定殖过程在整个原球茎发育过程中可不断重复发生。     

硬叶兰种子的迁地共生萌发及有效共生真菌的分离和鉴定

兰科植物的种子原地和迁地共生萌发技术是近年发展起来的开展兰科植物种子和共生真菌研究的有效方法。该研究对兰属(Cymbidium)附生植物硬叶兰(C. mannii)开展了种子的迁地共生萌发研究, 试图获得其种子萌发的有效真菌。利用硬叶兰成年植株根部周围的树皮、苔藓、枯枝落叶、腐殖质等作为培养基质, 进行种子的共生培养。在培养133天后, 成功地获得了处于不同阶段的已萌发种子、原球茎和幼苗, 并从原球茎中分离得到一种瘤菌根菌属(Epulorhiza)真菌。用所分离到的FCb4菌株和一种从兜唇石斛(Dendrobium aphyllum)分离到的胶膜菌属(Tulasnella) FDaI7菌株和硬叶兰种子在燕麦琼脂培养基上进行共生萌发, 设置不接菌作为对照处理, 以检验FCb4菌株对硬叶兰种子萌发的有效性。经过58天的培养, 不接菌的对照处理中种子没有萌发, 接种FCb4和FDaI7菌株的处理都有很高的种子萌发率, 两种接菌处理在不同光照条件下的种子萌发率均无显著性差异。但暗培养条件下, 种子萌发形成原球茎后, 表现出生长停滞的趋势, 仅有很少的原球茎继续生长达到幼苗阶段, 说明原球茎发育后期与幼苗发育阶段需要光照。在光照条件下, 接种FCb4菌株处理中达到幼苗阶段种子的比例为(25.67 ± 9.27)%, 显著高于接种FDaI7菌株处理的(3.04 ± 2.27)% (W = 56, p = 0.026, Mann-Whitney U-test), 表明此研究中分离到的瘤菌根菌属真菌能有效地促使硬叶兰种子萌发并生长发育到幼苗阶段。     

天麻种子萌发过程中与其共生真菌石斛小菇间的相互作用

天麻Gastrodiaelata种子与石斛小菇Mycenadendrobii的共生萌发试验表明,石斛小菇可与天麻共生,促进天麻种子发芽并形成原球茎。菌丝主要分布于原球茎的柄状细胞、外皮层细胞和内皮层细胞,在外皮层细胞中形成菌丝结,内皮层细胞中的菌丝则被消化。原球茎细胞中的菌丝均被电子透明物质和原球茎细胞质膜包围而与原球茎细胞质相隔离,菌丝进一步液泡化并最终被水解。含有衰败菌丝的原球茎细胞常被菌丝重新定殖。这一菌丝被消化及菌丝的重新定殖过程在整个原球茎发育过程中可不断重复发生。     

红色毛癣菌孢子期与萌芽期基因表达比较分析

红色毛癣菌(Trichophyton rubrum)是最常见和流行范围最广的一种浅部感染真菌, 它的孢子萌发是和致病密切相关且非常重要的发育过程. 为研究出芽时生理、生化以及细胞学方面的改变, 从红色毛癣菌cDNA文库中选取了3364条有明确功能注释的表达序列标签(ESTs)制备了cDNA芯片, 对孢子期及萌芽期进行了基因表达变化的研究. 数据分析表明, 孢子萌发过程中有335个基因表达上调, 主要是翻译、 修饰蛋白及结构蛋白. 细胞壁和细胞膜组分大量合成, 暗示它们是细胞形态发生的基础. 二组分信号转导系统的组成部分表达上调, 推测它可能在红色毛癣菌孢子萌发过程中起着重要作用. 各种代谢途径表达旺盛, 特别是参与糖酵解和氧化磷酸化的基因基本都上调, 说明在氧气和葡萄糖充足的环境下, 孢子主要通过有氧呼吸获得能量. 本研究对了解红色毛癣菌孢子萌发过程中基因表达的变化及其信号转导和代谢特点提供了重要线索, 对其他浅部真菌的研究也具有重要意义.     

网隙裂粉韧革菌不同生长时期转录组分析

网隙裂粉韧革菌Amylostereum areolatum是松树蜂Sirex noctilio携带并传播的共生真菌,与松树蜂之间存在严格的互利共生关系,其正常生长发育是松树蜂完成生活史的关键因子之一。为研究该共生菌生长发育的相关机制,我们对共生菌菌丝最大生长速率前期（7d）和后期（12d）样本进行转录组测序,在转录水平上分析差异表达基因在共生菌生长发育中的功能。结果显示,两个不同生长时期共有差异基因2 425个,其中在共生菌最大生长速率前期样本中上调的基因有946个,下调的有1 479个。Nr注释和GO功能富集分析结果表明,共生菌最大生长速率前期的差异表达基因主要与碳水化合物代谢、蛋白质合成以及水解酶活性相关。Pathway富集分析表明,差异表达基因显著富集在糖酵解/糖异生代谢通路上,并且这些基因在共生菌最大生长速率前期的样本中显著上调,表明其可能在网隙裂粉韧革菌的生长发育中发挥重要作用。通过分析两个不同生长时期共生菌基因的表达情况,挖掘参与共生菌生长发育的关键基因,旨在为探索松树蜂与其共生菌的互利共生机制提供理论基础。     

Fungi associated with terrestrial orchid mycorrhizas,seeds and protocorms

The identity and ecological role of fungi in the mycorrhizal roots of 25 species of mature terrestrial orchids and in 17 species of field incubated orchid seedlings were examined. Isolates of symbiotic fungi from mature orchid mycorrhizas were basidiomycetes primarily in the generaCeratorhiza, Epulorhiza andMoniliopsis; a few unidentified taxa with clamped hyphae were also recovered. More than one taxon of peloton-forming fungus was often observed in the cleared and stained mycorrhizas. AlthoughCeratorhiza andEpulorhiza strains were isolated from the developing protocorms, pelotons of clamped hyphae were often presents in the cleared protocorms of several orchid species. These basidiomycetes are difficult to isolate and may be symbionts of ectotrophic plants. The higher proportion of endophytes bearing clamp connections in developing seeds than in the mycorrhizas is attributed to differences in the nutritional requirements of the fully mycotrophic protocorms and partially autotrophic plants. Most isolates ofCeratorhiza differed enzymatically fromEpulorhiza in producing polyphenol oxidases. Dual cultures with thirteen orchid isolates and five non-orchid hosts showed that some taxa can form harmless associations with non-orchid hosts. It is suggested that most terrestrial orchid mycorrhizas are relatively non-specific and that the mycobionts can be saprophytes, parasites or mycorrhizal associates of other plants.     

Formation of endomycorrhizas by an achlorophyllous orchid,Erythrorchis ochobiensis, andAuricularia polytricha

To test the mycorrhizal function of heterobasidiomycetous fungi on achlorophyllous orchids and to examine the symbiotic fungal range of a myco-heterotrophic orchid,Erythrorchis ochobiensis, synthetic cultures of the orchid seed were carried out withAuricularia polytricha isolates from Japan and Mexico. After three and a half mo of incubation, 57.0–70.7% of seeds germinated but none of them showed further growth. When cultured on peat moss at 25°C, the germination rate was 8.7% in the presence of Mexican isolate and 18.0% in the presence of Japanese isolate. Some germinated seeds developed into protocorms, and several seeds incubated with the Mexican isolate developed into plantlets after 5 mo. Pelotons were observed in the cells of protocorms and roots. The results indicated that some heterobasidiomycetous fungi could form endomycorrhizas with a myco-heterotrophic orchid. The results also showed that the symbiont ofE. ochobiensis extends, at least experimentally, to Heterobasidiomycetes. The variances of germination rate and seedling growth were suggested to be affected by the difference of isolates and culture conditions.     

Proteome changes in Oncidium sphacelatum (Orchidaceae) at different trophic stages of symbiotic germination

Mutualistic symbioses between plants and fungi are a widespread phenomenon in nature. Particularly in orchids, association with symbiotic fungi is required for seed germination and seedling development. During the initial stages of symbiotic germination, before the onset of photosynthesis, orchid protocorms are fully mycoheterotrophic. The molecular mechanisms involved in orchid symbiotic germination and development are largely unknown, but it is likely that changes in plant energy metabolism and defense-related responses play a central role in these processes. We have used 2D-LC-MS/MS coupled to isobaric tagging for relative and absolute quantification to identify proteins with differential accumulation in Oncidium sphacelatum at different stages of mycorrhizal protocorm development (achlorophyllous and green protocorms) after seed inoculation with a Ceratobasidium sp. isolate. We identified and quantified 88 proteins, including proteins putatively involved in energy metabolism, cell rescue and defense, molecular signaling, and secondary metabolism. Quantitative analysis showed that the expected changes in carbon metabolism in green protocorms were accompanied by enhanced accumulation of proteins involved in the modulation of reactive oxygen species homeostasis, defense-related responses, and phytoalexins and carotenoid biosynthesis. Our results suggest profound metabolic changes in orchid protocorms during the switch from the fully mycoheterotrophic to the photosynthetic stage. Part of these changes may be also related to the obligatory nature of the interaction with the endomycorrhizal fungus.     

肺形侧耳低温胁迫时期的转录组分析

本文以肺形侧耳栽培菌株X57为研究对象,利用高通量RNA测序技术对4℃低温处理0h、6h和12h后的肺形侧耳进行基因表达分析来探讨肺形侧耳低温应答机制。分析结果筛选出低温处理6h差异表达基因742个,其中上调表达基因374个,下调表达基因368个;低温处理12h差异表达基因1 489个,其中上调表达基因占53%,下调表达基因占47%。Gene Ontology（GO）功能聚类分析表明,差异表达基因主要富集在结合、催化分子功能组和代谢过程、细胞过程生物学过程中。KEGG功能富集分析结果显示,差异基因主要富集在氨基酸、核糖体和类固醇生物合成,及氮类物质代谢的通路上,富集到与低温胁迫相关通路MAPK signaling pathway-yeast上的基因表达随低温处理时间的增加呈上调趋势。已报道HOG-MAPK通路是MAPK途径研究较为明确、信号传递单一的真菌低温胁迫中重要的通路,本文运用生物信息学软件构建肺形侧耳的HOG-MAPK通路,并利用荧光定量PCR对相关基因表达进行验证,结果显示以低温处理0h为参照,随着低温胁迫时间增加通路上大部分基因的表达量持续上升,且差异显著,与RNA‐Seq分析结果一致。本文通过全面分析肺形侧耳低温胁迫时期基因表达情况,为进一步研究肺形侧耳低温胁迫相关重要基因的功能鉴定与信号通路调控机理提供基础。     

七星瓢虫滞育关联基因的转录组学分析

对七星瓢虫正常发育、滞育以及滞育解除的雌成虫进行RNA测序,并对筛选出来的滞育相关基因进行KEGG通路富集分析,从分子水平解析七星瓢虫滞育发机理。本研究以正常发育产卵、滞育30 d以及滞育贮存30 d后解除产卵的七星瓢虫雌成虫为研究对象,分别抽提RNA,合成c DNA,构建c DNA文库,文库检测合格后在Illummina Hiseq 2500测序仪上进行双向测序。根据测序结果,共获取unigene 82820个。采用两两比较法对正常发育组和滞育组、滞育组和滞育解除组进行差异表达分析,分别获得差异表达基因3501个和1427个。深入分析两组比对结果,将在滞育组上调且滞育解除组下调的unigene定义为滞育关联基因,共有443个基因为滞育关联基因。应用KEGG KAAS在线pathway比对分析工具对滞育关联基因进行通路富集分析,结果发现这些基因主要集中在碳水化合物代谢、脂质代谢以及信号转导等途径中。     

In vitro germination ofErythrorchis ochobiensis (Orchidaceae) in the presence ofLyophyllum shimeji, an ectomycorrhizal fungus

In vitro germination of a myco-heterotrophic orchid,Erythrorchis ochobiensis, was tested in the presence of ectomycorrhizal fungi,Lyophyllum shimeji andTricholoma fulvocastaneum. Lyophyllum shimeji stimulated the germination after incubation for 1.5 mo. Although most germinated seeds did not grow further after 3 mo, several seeds developed into small protocorms but showed amorphous profiles. Fungal mycelia were observed in the germinated seeds and protocorms, but pelotons were not detected. Since the seeds did not germinate axenically, it may be suggested that the fungus has the ability to stimulate germination.     

Gene expression in mycorrhizal orchid protocorms suggests a friendly plant–fungus relationship

Main conclusion

Orchid mycorrhiza has been often interpreted as an antagonistic relationship. Our data on mycorrhizal protocorms do not support this view as plant defence genes were not induced, whereas some nodulin-like genes were significantly up-regulated. Orchids fully depend on symbiotic interactions with specific soil fungi for seed germination and early development. Germinated seeds give rise to a protocorm, a heterotrophic organ that acquires nutrients, including organic carbon, from the mycorrhizal partner. It has long been debated if this interaction is mutualistic or antagonistic. To investigate the molecular bases of the orchid response to mycorrhizal invasion, we developed a symbiotic in vitro system between Serapias vomeracea, a Mediterranean green meadow orchid, and the rhizoctonia-like fungus Tulasnella calospora. 454 pyrosequencing was used to generate an inventory of plant and fungal genes expressed in mycorrhizal protocorms, and plant genes could be reliably identified with a customized bioinformatic pipeline. A small panel of plant genes was selected and expression was assessed by real-time quantitative PCR in mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal protocorm tissues. Among these genes were some markers of mutualistic (e.g. nodulins) as well as antagonistic (e.g. pathogenesis-related and wound/stress-induced) genes. None of the pathogenesis or wound/stress-related genes were significantly up-regulated in mycorrhizal tissues, suggesting that fungal colonization does not trigger strong plant defence responses. In addition, the highest expression fold change in mycorrhizal tissues was found for a nodulin-like gene similar to the plastocyanin domain-containing ENOD55. Another nodulin-like gene significantly more expressed in the symbiotic tissues of mycorrhizal protocorms was similar to a sugar transporter of the SWEET family. Two genes coding for mannose-binding lectins were significantly up-regulated in the presence of the mycorrhizal fungus, but their role in the symbiosis is unclear.