There were at least four waves of bow and arrow use in northern North America. These occurred at 12000, 4500, 2400, and after about 1300 years ago. But to understand the role of the bow and arrow in the north, one must begin in the eighteenth century, when the Russians first arrived in the Aleutian Islands. At that time, the Aleut were using both the atlatl and dart and the bow and arrow 1 (Fig. 1 ). This is significant for two particular and important reasons. First, there are few historic cases in which both technologies were used concurrently; second, the bow and arrow in the Aleutian Islands were used almost exclusively in warfare. The atlatl was a critical technology because the bow and arrow are useless for hunting sea mammals. One cannot launch an arrow from a kayak because it is too unstable and requires that both hands remain on a paddle. To use an atlatl, it is necessary only to stabilize the kayak with a paddle on one side and launch the atlatl dart with the opposite hand. The Aleut on the Alaska Peninsula did indeed use the bow and arrow to hunt caribou there. However, in the 1,400 km of the Aleutian Islands, there are no terrestrial mammals except humans and the bow was reserved almost exclusively for conflicts among them. The most significant event in the history of the bow and arrow is not its early introduction, but rather the Asian War Complex 1300 years ago, when the recurve and backed bows first entered the region, altering regional and hemispheric political dynamics forever. Figure 1 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint Aleut male as shown in Liapunova 50 Figure 2, remastered and edited by Maschner. A) Atlatl and darts, B) the recurved bow, C) armor, and D) shield. Drawing by M. C. Levashov, 1764–1769, original in the Central State Archives of the Navy, Russia. Citing Literature
Number of times cited: 9
Todd J. Kristensen, Thomas D. Andrews, Glen MacKay, Ruth Gotthardt, Sean C. Lynch, M. John M. Duke, Andrew J. Locock and John W. Ives , Identifying and sourcing pyrometamorphic artifacts: Clinker in subarctic North America and the hunter-gatherer response to a Late Holocene volcanic eruption , Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports , 10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.11.039 , 23 , (773-790) , (2019) . Crossref
Brigid Sky Grund and Snehalata V. Huzurbazar , RADIOCARBON DATING OF TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSITIONS: THE LATE HOLOCENE SHIFT FROM ATLATL TO BOW IN NORTHWESTERN SUBARCTIC CANADA , American Antiquity , 83 , 01 , (148) , (2018) . Crossref
Brigid Sky Grund , Behavioral Ecology, Technology, and the Organization of Labor: How a Shift from Spear Thrower to Self Bow Exacerbates Social Disparities , American Anthropologist , 119 , 1 , (104-119) , (2017) . Wiley Online Library
Anna Berge , Chapter 3. Subsistence terms in Unangam Tunuu (Aleut) , Language Dispersal Beyond Farming , 10.1075/z.215.03ber , (47-73) , (2017) . Crossref
Matthew Walls and Lambros Malafouris , Creativity as a Developmental Ecology , The Palgrave Handbook of Creativity and Culture Research , 10.1057/978-1-137-46344-9_30 , (623-638) , (2017) . Crossref
Adam N. Rorabaugh and Tiffany J. Fulkerson , TIMING OF THE INTRODUCTION OF ARROW TECHNOLOGIES IN THE SALISH SEA, NORTHWEST NORTH AMERICA , Lithic Technology , 40 , 1 , (21) , (2015) . Crossref
Bill Angelbeck and Ian Cameron , The Faustian bargain of technological change: Evaluating the socioeconomic effects of the bow and arrow transition in the Coast Salish past , Journal of Anthropological Archaeology , 36 , (93) , (2014) . Crossref
Paul M. Bingham, Joanne Souza and John H. Blitz , Introduction: Social Complexity and the Bow in the Prehistoric North American Record , "Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews" , 22 , 3 , (81-88) , (2013) . Wiley Online Library
Paul M. Bingham and Joanne Souza , Theory Testing in Prehistoric North America: Fruits of One of the World's Great Archeological Natural Laboratories , "Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews" , 22 , 3 , (145-153) , (2013) . Wiley Online Library
Recent studies suggest that seaweed extracts are a significant source of bioactive compounds comparable to the dietary phytochemicals such as onion and tea extracts. The exploration of natural antioxidants that attenuate oxidative damage is important for developing strategies to treat obesity‐related pathologies. The objective of this study was to screen the effects of seaweed extracts of 49 species on adipocyte differentiation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production during the adipogenesis in 3T3‐L1 adipocytes, and to investigate their total phenol contents and 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activities. Our results show that high total phenol contents were observed in the extracts of Ecklonia cava (see Table 1 for taxonomic authors) (681.1 ± 16.0 μg gallic acid equivalents [GAE] · g?1), Dictyopteris undulata (641.3 ± 70.7 μg GAE · g?1), and Laurencia intermedia (560.9 ± 48.1 μg GAE · g?1). In addition, DPPH radical scavenging activities were markedly higher in Sargassum macrocarpum (60.2%), Polysiphonia morrowii (55.0%), and Ishige okamurae (52.9%) than those of other seaweed extracts (P <0.05). Moreover, treatment with several seaweed extracts including D. undulata, Sargassum micracanthum, Chondrus ocellatus, Gelidium amansii, Gracilaria verrucosa, and Grateloupia lanceolata significantly inhibited adipocyte differentiation and ROS production during differentiation of 3T3‐L1 preadipocytes. Furthermore, the production of ROS was positively correlated with lipid accumulation (R2 = 0.8149). According to these preliminary results, some of the seaweed extracts can inhibit ROS generation, which may protect against oxidative stress that is linked to obesity. Further studies are required to determine the molecular mechanism between the verified seaweeds and ROS, and the resulting effects on obesity. Table 1. List of Korean seaweed extracts of 49 species evaluated in this experiment.
Type
No.
Scientific name
Collection time
TP1 (μg GAE · g?1)
Brown macroalgae
SE‐1
Chondracanthus tenellus (Harv.) Hommers.
April 27, 2006
112.8 ± 15.1lm
SE‐2
Colpomenia sinusa (F. C. Mertens ex Roth) Derbes et Solier in Castagne
May 11, 2006
44.0 ± 4.1opqrs
SE‐3
Dictyopteris divaricata (Okamura) Okamura
April 6, 2006
41.5 ± 5.6pqrs
SE‐4
Dictyopteris pacifica (Yendo) I. K. Hwang, H.‐S. Kim et W. J. Lee
April 27, 2006
80.9 ± 8.3mno
SE‐5
Dictyopteris prolifera (Okamura) Okamura
November 26, 2007
48.4 ± 3.0nopqrs
SE‐6
Dictyopteris undulata Holmes
July 28, 2007
641.3 ± 70.7b
SE‐7
Dictyota asiatica I. K. Hwang
April 6, 2006
52.9 ± 7.6nonopqr
SE‐8
Ecklonia cava Kjellm.
October 22, 2006
681.1 ± 16.0a
SE‐9
Ecklonia stolonifera Okamura
November 26, 2007
36.5 ± 3.4pqrs
SE‐10
Endarachne binghamiae J. Agardh
March 10, 2006
50.4 ± 2.6nopqrs
SE‐11
Hizikia fusiformis (Harv.) Okamura
July 23, 2006
16.4 ± 1.2rs
SE‐12
Hydroclathrus clathratus (C. Agardh) M. Howe
May 11, 2006
18.1 ± 0.9rs
SE‐13
Ishige okamurae Yendo
May 26, 2006
237.4 ± 1.6h
SE‐14
Lethesia difformis (L.) Aresch.
May 11, 2006
11.2 ± 1.9s
SE‐15
Myelophycus simplex (Harv.) Papenf.
April 27, 2006
39.5 ± 3.2pqrs
SE‐16
Padina arborescens Holmes
July 29, 2007
172.9 ± 23.1ij
SE‐17
Sargassum fulvellum (Turner) C. Agardh
April 27, 2006
119.1 ± 5.6kl
SE‐18
Sargassum micracanthum (Kütz.) Endl.
December 21, 2006
468.0 ± 22.7e
SE‐19
Sargassum patens C. Agardh
January 21, 2007
41.5 ± 5.7pqrs
SE‐20
Sargassum confusum C. Agardh f. validum Yendo
March 8, 2008
110.9 ± 3.5lm
SE‐21
Sargassum horneri (Turner) C. Agardh
March 1, 2006
84.8 ± 9.4lmn
SE‐22
Sargassum macrocarpum C. Agardh
January 21, 2007
353.9 ± 59.1g
SE‐23
Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Fensolt
January 21, 2007
72.1 ± 14.9nop
SE‐24
Sargassum nipponium Yendo
April 6, 2006
54.0 ± 3.5nopqr
SE‐25
Sargassum sagamianum Yendo
March 8, 2008
41.0 ± 6.7pqrs
SE‐26
Sargassum thunbergii (Mertens ex Roth) Kuntze
July 23, 2006
27.7 ± 0.8qrs
SE‐27
Scytosiphon gracilis Kogame
May 26, 2006
30.2 ± 5.6qrs
SE‐28
Scytosiphon lomentaria (Lyngb.) Link
May 11, 2006
66.5 ± 8.9nopq
Red macroalgae
SE‐29
Bonnemaisonia hamifera Har.
April 27, 2006
44.1 ± 2.3opqrs
SE‐30
Callophyllis crispata Okamura
May 11, 2006
37.6 ± 12.6pqrs
SE‐31
Chondria crassicaulis Harv.
May 11, 2006
45.4 ± 4.4opqrs
SE‐32
Chondrus crispus Stackh.
May 26, 2006
40.7 ± 8.0pqrs
SE‐33
Chondrus ocellatus Holmes
May 11, 2006
47.2 ± 1.7nopqrs
SE‐34
Gelidium amansii (J. V. Lamour.) J. V. Lamour.
April 27, 2006
525.3 ± 35.9d
SE‐35
Gloioperltis furcata (Postels et Rupr.) J. Agardh
May 26, 2006
147.7 ± 6.4jk
SE‐36
Gloioperltis complanta (Harv.) Yamada
May 26, 2006
58.2 ± 6.4nopq
SE‐37
Gracilaria verrucosa (Hudson) Papenf.
March 6, 2008
55.1 ± 7.5nopqr
SE‐38
Grateloupia elliptica Holmes
May 26, 2006
154.4 ± 12.9j
SE‐39
Grateloupia filicina (J. V. Lamour.) C. Agardh
May 11, 2006
38.2 ± 2.2pqrs
SE‐40
Grateloupia lanceolata (Okamura) Kawag.
July 23, 2006
32.7 ± 3.0pqrs
SE‐41
Laurencia intermedia J. V. Lamour.
May 11, 2006
560.9 ± 48.1c
SE‐42
Laurencia intricata J. V. Lamour.
April 27, 2006
35.4 ± 4.0pqrs
SE‐43
Laurencia okamurae Yamada
May 11, 2006
193.2 ± 41.9i
SE‐44
Lomentaria hakodatensis Yendo
April 27, 2006
165.2 ± 15.1ij
SE‐45
Polyopes affinis (Harv.) Kawag. et H.‐W. Wang
May 26, 2006
42.9 ± 2.3opqrs
SE‐46
Polysiphonia morrowii Harv.
May 11, 2006
392.4 ± 40.3f
SE‐47
Prionitis cornea (Okamura) E. Y. Dawson
October 22, 2006
47.9 ± 3.6nopqrs
Green macroalgae
SE‐48
Enteromorpha prolifera (O. F. Müll.) J. Agardh
March 26, 2006
42.0 ± 5.3pqrs
SE‐49
Ulva pertusa Kjellm.
April 27, 2006
48.3 ± 3.8nopqrs
GAE, gallic acid equivalents; SE, seaweed extracts.
1TP, total phenol content is micrograms of total phenol contents per gram of seaweed extract based on gallic acid as standard. The values are means ± SD from three replications.
a–sMeans in the same column not sharing a common letter are significantly different (P <0.05) by Duncan’s multiple test.
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How common is hybridization between species and what effect does it have on the evolutionary process? Can hybridization generate new species and what indeed is a species? In this issue, Gompert et al. (2014) show how massive, genome‐scale data sets can be used to shed light on these questions. They focus on the Lycaeides butterflies, and in particular, several populations from the western USA, which have characteristics suggesting that they may contain hybrids of two or more different species (Gompert et al. 2006). They demonstrate that these populations do contain mosaic genomes made up of components from different parental species. However, this appears to have been largely driven by historical admixture, with more recent processes appearing to be isolating the populations from each other. Therefore, these populations are on their way to becoming distinct species (if they are not already) but have arisen following extensive hybridization between other distinct populations or species (Fig. 1 ). Figure 1 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint There has been extensive historical admixture between Lycaeides species with some new species arising from hybrid populations. (Photo credits: Lauren Lucas, Chris Nice, and James Fordyce). Their data set must be one of the largest outside of humans, with over one and half thousand butterflies genotyped at over 45 thousand variable nucleotide positions. It is this sheer amount of data that has allowed the researchers to distinguish between historical and more recent evolutionary and demographic processes. This is because it has allowed them to partition the data into common and rare genetic variants and perform separate analyses on these. Common genetic variants are likely to be older while rare variants are more likely to be due to recent mutations. Therefore, by splitting the genetic variation into these components, the researchers were able to show more admixture among common variants, while rare variants showed less admixture and clear separation of the populations. The extensive geographic sampling of individuals, including overlapping distributions of several of the putative species, also allowed the authors to rule out the possibility that the separation of the populations was simply due to geographical distance. The authors have developed a new programme for detecting population structure and admixture, which does the same job as STRUCTURE (Pritchard et al. 2000 ), identifying genetically distinct populations and admixture between these populations, but is designed to be used with next generation sequence data. They use the output of this model for another promising new method to distinguish between contemporary and historical admixtures. They fixed the number of source populations in the model at two and estimated the proportion of each individual's genome coming from these two populations. Therefore, an individual can either be purely population 1, or population 2 or some mixture of the two (they call this value q, the same parameter exists in STRUCTURE). They then compared this to the level of heterozygosity coming from the two source populations in the individual's genome. If an individual is an F1 hybrid of two source populations, then it would have a q of 0.5 and also be heterozygous at all loci that distinguish the parental populations. On the other hand, if it is a member of a stable hybrid lineage, it might also have a q of 0.5 but would not be expected to be heterozygous at these loci, because over time the population would become fixed for one or other of the source population states either by drift or selection (Fig. 2 ). This is indeed what they find in the hybrid populations. They tend to have intermediate q values, but the level of heterozygosity coming from the source populations (which they call Q12) was consistently lower than expected. Figure 2 Open in figure viewer PowerPoint The Q‐matrix analysis used by Gompert et al. ( 2014 ) to distinguish between contemporary (hybrid swarm) and historical (stable hybrid lineage) admixture. Overall, the results support several of the populations as being stable hybrid lineages. Nevertheless, the strictest definitions of hybrid species specify that the process of hybridization between the parental species must be instrumental in driving the reproductive isolation of the new species from both parental populations (Abbott et al. 2013 ). This is extremely hard to demonstrate conclusively because it requires us to first of all identify the isolating mechanisms that operated in the early evolution of the species and then to show that these were caused by the hybridization event itself. One advantage of the Lycaeides system is that the species appear to be in the early stages of divergence, so barriers to gene flow that are operating currently are likely to be those that are driving the species divergence. While there is some evidence that hybridization gave rise to traits that allowed the new populations to colonize new environments (Gompert et al. 2006 ; Lucas et al. 2008 ), there is clearly further work to be carried out in this direction. One of the rare examples of homoploid hybrid speciation (hybrid speciation without a change in chromosome number) where the reproductive isolation criterion has been demonstrated, comes from the Heliconius butterflies. In this case, hybridization of two species has been shown to give rise to a new colour pattern that instantly becomes reproductively isolated from the parental species due to mate preference for that pattern (Mavárez et al. 2006 ). However, while this has become a widely accepted example (Abbott et al. 2013 ), the naturally occurring ‘hybrid species’ in fact has derived most of its genome from one of the parental species, with largely just the colour pattern controlling locus coming from the other parent, a process that has been termed ‘hybrid trait speciation’ (Salazar et al. 2010 ). This distinction is an important one in terms of our understanding of the organization of biological diversity. While hybrid trait speciation will still largely fit the model of a neatly branching evolutionary tree, with perhaps only the region surrounding the single introgressed gene deviating from this model, hybrid species that end up with mosaic genomes, like Lycaeides, will not fit this model when considering the genome as a whole. This distinction also more broadly applies when comparing the patterns of divergence between Heliconius and Lycaeides. These two butterfly genera have been driving forward our understanding of the prevalence and importance of hybridization at the genomic level, but they reveal different ways in which hybridization can influence the organization of biological diversity. Recent work in Heliconius has shown that admixture is extensive and has been ongoing over a large portion of the evolutionary history of species (Martin et al. 2013 ; Nadeau et al. 2013 ). Nevertheless, this has not obscured the clear and robust pattern of a bifurcating evolutionary tree when considering the genome as a whole (Nadeau et al. 2013 ). In contrast in Lycaeides, the genome‐wide phylogeny clearly does not fit a bifurcating tree, resembling more of a messy shrub, with hybrid taxa falling at intermediate positions on the phylogeny (Gompert et al. 2014 ). The extent to which we need to rethink the way we describe and organize biological diversity will depend on the relative prevalence of these different outcomes of hybridization. We are likely to see many more of these types of large sequence data sets for ecologically interesting organisms. Gompert et al. ( 2014 ) show that these data need not only be a quantitative advance, but can also qualitatively change our understanding of the evolutionary history of these organisms. In particular, analysing common and rare genetic variants separately may provide information that would otherwise be missed. The emerging field of ‘speciation genomics’ (Seehausen et al. 2014 ) should follow this lead in developing new ways of making the most of the flood of genomic data that is being generated, but also improve methods for integrating this with field observations and experiments to identify the sources and targets of selection and divergence.
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This article was written and figures prepared by N.N. except as specified in the text (photo credits).
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Amanda Roe, Julian Dupuis, Felix Sperling, Molecular Dimensions of Insect Taxonomy in the Genomics Era, Insect Biodiversity, 10.1002/9781118945568, (547-573), (2017). Wiley Online Library
1.1. The capacity of five anuran Amphibians (Bufo viridis B. regularis, Rana ridibunda, Hyla arborea and Pelobates syriacus) to acclimate to NaCl and urea solutions was investigated.
2.2. All species could be acclimated to relatively high concentrations of urea solutions, while only Bufo viridis and Hyla arborea could be acclimated to 500 mOsm/kg or higher NaCl solutions.
3.3. The plasma urea concentration in B. viridis and H. arborea was elevated to levels over 140 mmol/1.
4.4. The sum of plasma sodium and chloride concentrations did not increase over 400 mmol/l in any species.
5.5. Urine osmolality, which was normally low, increased, but never exceeded the plasma osmolality.
6.6. In the urea acclimation conditions, urine electrolytes diminished, similarly in all species in this study.
7.7. It is concluded that anuran Amphibians can tolerate high plasma urea concentrations, but only those species which can elevate it, either through retention or net synthesis, can be acclimated to high salt solutions.
This paper comments on: Low, B. S., Alexander, R. D., and Noonan, K.M. Human hips, breast, and buttocks: Is fat deceptive? Ethology and Sociobiology 8: 249-247, 1987. In it I argue that:
1.1. Sexual selection has probably not been the most important selection pressure on
2.female human body shape.
3.2. Male humans in different cultures find different aspects of the female body attractive
4.and therefore are unlikely to have exerted consistent directional sexual selection on
5.the female body.
6.3. Breast size is not correlated with lactation success.
7.4. Visible hip width is not correlated with parturition success.
8.5. Women would lower their fitness if they tried to deceive men about their internal
9.pelvic dimensions.
10.6. There are many alternative hypothesis to explain the existence of fat onwomen's
1.1. The hemocyanins from six Oniscoidea species are compared by agar immunodiffusion and by quantitative immunoprecipitation.
2.2. The hemocyanins of the investigated species give an immunoprecipitation reaction whatever antihemocyanin antiserum was used.
3.3. The antigenic structure of the Oniscoidea hemocyanins is based on the presence of five or six antigenic determinants; the number of common determinants between the hemocyanins increases with the systematic proximity of the species.
4.4. A model of a phylogenetic species separation is proposed from the antigenic distances between the hemocyanins found by quantitative immunoprecipitation.
1.1. The sperm-agglutinating factor (SAF) could be induced in the serum of male Nile tilapias, Oreochromis niloticus, by injection of allogeneic sperm.
2.2. Only one class of molecules was demonstrated to be SAF in the serum.
3.3. Analysis on purified SAF revealed it to be a tetrameric molecule of IgM with a mol. wt of 760kD.
4.4. Cross reaction of the IgM with sperm of other teleost species suggests that sperm-specific surface antigens may be in evolution.
1.1. Accumulation and distribution of dietary Se in relation to mortality was investigated in adult house flies.
2.2. The midgut preferentially accumulated Se and thereby limited toxicity.
3.3. Midgut Se concentrations were from 6- to 107-fold higher than in carcass, and from 15 to 71% of the total Se was associated with midgut.
4.4. When dietary levels of Se were raised the midgut saturated at 15 μg Se/g tissue, followed by a rise in carcass levels to greater than 0.5 μg Se/g tissue and increased mortality.
5.5. Se levels in lysosomal fractions were from 3- to 50-fold higher than in other subcellular fractions, suggesting that Se is sequestered in lysosomes.
6.6. Se added to drinking water was toxic at 4–8 ppm.
1.1. Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) was isolated from five rat tissues: white adipose, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, mammary gland and lung.
2.2. Specific activity of the preparations varied from 75 U/mg for skeletal muscle and 720 U/mg for adipose.
3.3. The preparations were further analysed using SDS-PAGE and a single component identified. The mol. wt of 61,000 Da of this component was consistent for all five of the tissue sources.
4.4. Significant differences in the values of the isoelectric points of the enzyme species were revealed. The values varied from 7.23 (SEM 0.022) for cardiac and lung to 7.51 (SEM 0.037) for mammary.
5.5. Two-dimensional electrophoresis, using isoelectric focusing in the first dimension and SDS-PAGE in the second revealed differences in the patterns of stained material derived from the five tissue sources.
1.1. Volatile cephalic secretions from male and female Andrena F. bees were analysed by capillary gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.
2.2. Eight species. A. clarkella (K.), A. fucata Smith, A. helvola (L.), A. praecox (Scop.), A. labiata F., A. fuscipes (K.), A. denticulata (K.) and A. nigriceps (K.), were studied, in A. nigriceps (K.) only females were available.
3.3. These species were found to contain some acyclic monoterpenes, especially geranial and neral, and/or straight-chain ketones with 8–14 carbon atoms.
4.4. The volatile compounds emanate from the mandibular glands.
5.5. Six of the species studied show large similarities in the composition of male and female cephalic secretions, whereas in one species. A. helvola (L.), characteristic differences were found between the sexes.
6.6. The possible role of the cephalic secretions in relation to territorial flight, population congregation, and sexual attraction is discussed.
•Highly glycosylated matrisome proteins and their binding partners comprise extracellular networks that mediate tissue-specific cellular microenvironments.
•Elucidation of roles of matrisome molecules in disease mechanisms requires detailed mapping of matrisome glycosylation and other post-translational modifications.
•We review tissue workup methods for matrisome proteomics, glycomics and glycoproteomics.
•The combination of proteomics, glycomics and glycoproteomics profiles matrisome protein modifications distinct from those studied by immunohistochemistry.
1.1. Analysis of the haemolymph composition of two species of New Zealand wetas gave the following data.
2.2. Both species have a typical composition in terms of the inorganic fraction of the haemolymph, with Hemideina femorata having twice the amount of potassium found in H. maori.
3.3. There were high concentrations of proline, glycine and alanine in both species of weta.
4.4. Other organic fractions of the haemolymph of both species appear to be typical for the class Insecta. The significance of the results are discussed.