Reproductive Failure in Goats in Norway: An Investigation in 24 Herds

Twenty-four flocks comprising 2370 breeding goats were examined. Threehundred-and-sixty-nine (15.6 %) of the goats either aborted or delivered dead kids at full term, or were barren. In 23 of the herds the rate of reproductive loss ranged from 2 % to 36 %, whereas in one herd all of 54 mated goats had live kids. A loss of ≥ 20 % was found in 9 herds comprising 799 goats. In 11 herds comprising 946 goats the rate of reproductive failure was ≤ 10 %. The incidence of reproductive failure was higher in older goats than in those in their first or second pregnancy. The causes were identified in only about 3 % of the goats that aborted. It is concluded that reproductive failure in many flocks probably is associated with non-infectious causes such as nutritional and environmental factors.     

Corynebacterium Pseudotuberculosis Infection in Goats III.

Serological examinations for Gorynebacterium pseudotuberculosis in-fection were carried out in 14 known positive herds and in 1 herd that had beeni recently established through purchase of animals from different herds. Serum samples were collected sequentially on up to 4 occasions from animals during their first year of life. In most herds, these animals were examined clinically for superficial swellings once or twice during the same period. The adult goats in 8 infected herds were examined both clinically and serologically. Age distribution was similar in each of these herds. All serum samples were examined for antibodies against Gorynebac-terium pseudotuberculosis in both the bacterial agglutination test (BAT) and the hemolysis inhibition test (HIT). The proportion of kids which were seropositive in both tests de-creased to zero at 4 months of age. At the age of 11–12 months, the proportion of seropositive animals was about 50 % in the BAT and 30 % in the HIT. When examined when housed for the winter at the age of about 8 months (mean age), the prevalence of animals with superficial swellings was 7 %. At the age of about 1 year (mean age), 29 % of the examined animals had such lesions. In the recently established herd, only a few of the yearlings were seropositive. Titre values in BAT and HIT increased until 6 years of age. Anti-body titre values were significantly lower in yearlings than in older goats in both tests, P < 0.005. No significant difference in the propor-tion of goats with superficial swellings was seen at the different ages.     

Combined eradication strategy for CAE in a dairy goat farm in Japan

We conducted an eradication program from 2002 to 2006 against caprine arthritis-encephalitis (CAE) virus (CAEV) in an important farm that maintained goat breeds and had a high prevalence of CAEV infection. The program did not involve the slaughter and replacement of entire flocks, but rather the prevention of both vertical and horizontal transmission. The program consisted of (1) removal of kids immediately after birth, (2) segregation of each generation, and (3) culling of positive goats in periodical tests. All goats born before 2002 were regarded as infected and grouped into herd A. Kids born during the program were divided into several herds on the basis of CAEV infection risk, raised with calf milk replacer, and periodically tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) test. A total of 205 kids were produced from 137 parents in herd A, 92 of which were distinctly infected. Only 11 of the 205 kids were infected with CAEV and were culled. The remaining 194 kids and all other kids born from other herds were negative by PCR and AGID testing throughout the program. The milk yield of primiparous does was significantly increased after the eradication program. These findings indicate that the combine use of isolated and milk-deprived rearing and periodical detection testing are effective in establishing a CAEV-free flock from an infected flock.     

High Female Mortality Resulting in Herd Collapse in Free-Ranging Domesticated Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Sweden

Reindeer herding in Sweden is a form of pastoralism practised by the indigenous Sámi population. The economy is mainly based on meat production. Herd size is generally regulated by harvest in order not to overuse grazing ranges and keep a productive herd. Nonetheless, herd growth and room for harvest is currently small in many areas. Negative herd growth and low harvest rate were observed in one of two herds in a reindeer herding community in Central Sweden. The herds (A and B) used the same ranges from April until the autumn gathering in October–December, but were separated on different ranges over winter. Analyses of capture-recapture for 723 adult female reindeer over five years (2007–2012) revealed high annual losses (7.1% and 18.4%, for herd A and B respectively). A continuing decline in the total reindeer number in herd B demonstrated an inability to maintain the herd size in spite of a very small harvest. An estimated breakpoint for when herd size cannot be kept stable confirmed that the observed female mortality rate in herd B represented a state of herd collapse. Lower calving success in herd B compared to A indicated differences in winter foraging conditions. However, we found only minor differences in animal body condition between the herds in autumn. We found no evidence that a lower autumn body mass generally increased the risk for a female of dying from one autumn to the next. We conclude that the prime driver of the on-going collapse of herd B is not high animal density or poor body condition. Accidents or disease seem unlikely as major causes of mortality. Predation, primarily by lynx and wolverine, appears to be the most plausible reason for the high female mortality and state of collapse in the studied reindeer herding community.     

Epidemic pasteurellosis in a bighorn sheep population coinciding with the appearance of a domestic sheep

A pneumonia epidemic reduced bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) survival and recruitment during 1997-2000 in a population comprised of three interconnected wintering herds (Kenosha Mountains, Sugarloaf Mountain, Twin Eagles) that inhabited the Kenosha and Tarryall Mountain ranges in central Colorado, USA. The onset of this epidemic coincided temporally and spatially with the appearance of a single domestic sheep (Ovis aires) on the Sugarloaf Mountain herd's winter range in December 1997. Although only bighorns in the Sugarloaf Mountain herd were affected in 1997-98, cases also occurred during 1998-99 in the other two wintering herds, likely after the epidemic spread via established seasonal movements of male bighorns. In all, we located 86 bighorn carcasses during 1997-2000. Three species of Pasteurella were isolated in various combinations from affected lung tissues from 20 bighorn carcasses where tissues were available and suitable for diagnostic evaluation; with one exception, beta-hemolytic mannheimia (Pasteurella) haemolytica (primarily reported as biogroup 1(G) or 1(alphaG)) was isolated from lung tissues of cases evaluated during winter 1997-98. The epidemic dramatically lowered adult bighorn monthly survival in all three herds; a model that included an acute epidemic effect, differing between sexes and with vaccination status, that diminished linearly over the next 12 mo best represented field data. In addition to the direct mortality associated with epidemics in these three herds, lamb recruitment in years following the pneumonia epidemic also was depressed as compared to years prior to the epidemic. Based on observations presented here, pasteurellosis epidemics in free-ranging bighorn sheep can arise through incursion of domestic sheep onto native ranges, and thus minimizing contact between domestic and bighorn sheep appears to be a logical principle for bighorn sheep conservation.     

Visna Virus Meningoencephalomyelitis in Goats

A progressive paresis was encountered in herds of Swedish goats. The symptoms developed during a period of weeks or months, and were initially often seen as a weakness of the hind limbs before the animals became paralytic. The development and the histopathological lesions of the disease in the GNS and the lungs were similar to those of visna in sheep. In vitro grown choroid plexus cells, prepared from affected goats, showed foci of polykaryocytes. Electron microscopy revealed the presence of particles morphologically similar to those of sheep visna virus (SVV). Goats experimentally infected with the goat visna virus (GVV) developed GNS lesions similar to those of visna in sheep and became seropositive to SVV. The results of complement fixation tests, carried out on sera from 11 goat herds, showed a coincidence between seropositiveness and the occurrence of disease in one and the same herd. Using the ELISA method, an average of 80 % of the goats in 5 herds were found to be seropositive to GVV.     

Interchange and Overlap Among Four Adjacent Arctic Caribou Herds

Barren ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus granti) are distributed in herds that seasonally use specific geographic regions within an annual range, with varying levels of fidelity during different periods (e.g., calving, insect relief, wintering). As a result, caribou management is generally tailored to individual herds that often range across administrative boundaries. Herd ranges can shift over time, seasonal ranges of adjacent herds often overlap, herds merge, and there is often little genetic differentiation among adjacent herds. If substantial herd interchange occurs, it would have important management implications by influencing estimates of herd size, herd composition, and harvest rates. We compiled satellite telemetry data from 2003–2015 for 4 large arctic caribou herds to quantify herd interchange rates. We calculated a metric of herd interchange based on the relationship of caribou locations to typical weekly herd ranges (all yrs combined) and the distance to other radio-collared caribou from each of the 4 herds (yr specific). Although herd membership cannot always be clearly defined based on location, this metric provides an objective measure of the strength of evidence of herd membership that can be used to make comparisons among herds and time periods. We also calculated herd overlap and quantified how it varied throughout the year. Herd interchange was rare in the 2 larger herds, generally occurring when caribou overwintered with an adjacent herd, whereas herd interchange from the 2 smaller herds was more frequent and could last longer than a year. Although sample sizes were limited, there were no clear patterns in herd interchange with year or annual herd size. The 2 smaller herds had large seasonal overlap with adjacent herds, suggesting that herd interchange may be related to spatiotemporal herd overlap and relative herd size. Our results can help managers understand herd interchange and overlap to make management decisions, interpret research results, and develop more accurate population models. © 2020 The Authors. The Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Wildlife Society.     

Barren‐ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) behaviour after recent fire events; integrating caribou telemetry data with Landsat fire detection techniques

Fire regimes are changing throughout the North American boreal forest in complex ways. Fire is also a major factor governing access to high‐quality forage such as terricholous lichens for barren‐ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus). Additionally, fire alters forest structure which can affect barren‐ground caribou's ability to navigate in a landscape. Here, we characterize how the size and severity of fires are changing across five barren‐ground caribou herd ranges in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, Canada. Additionally, we demonstrate how time since fire, fire severity, and season result in complex changes in caribou behavioural metrics estimated using telemetry data. Fire disturbances were identified using novel gap‐free Landsat surface reflectance composites from 1985 to 2011 across all herd ranges. Burn severity was estimated using the differenced normalized burn ratio. Annual area burned and burn severity were assessed through time for each herd and related to two behavioural metrics: velocity and relative turning angle. Neither annual area burned nor burn severity displayed any temporal trend within the study period. However, certain herds, such as the Ahiak/Beverly, have more exposure to fire than other herds (i.e. Cape Bathurst had a maximum forested area burned of less than 4 km²). Time since fire and burn severity both significantly affected velocity and relative turning angles. During fall, winter, and spring, fire virtually eliminated foraging‐focused behaviour for all 26 years of analysis while more severe fires resulted in a marked increase in movement‐focused behaviour compared to unburnt patches. Between seasons, caribou used burned areas as early as 1‐year postfire, demonstrating complex, nonlinear reactions to time since fire, fire severity, and season. In all cases, increases in movement‐focused behaviour were detected postfire. We conclude that changes in caribou behaviour immediately postfire are primarily driven by changes in forest structure rather than changes in terricholous lichen availability.     

Evaluating apparent competition in limiting the recovery of an endangered ungulate

Predation can disproportionately affect endangered prey populations when generalist predators are numerically linked to more abundant primary prey. Apparent competition, the term for this phenomenon, has been increasingly implicated in the declines of endangered prey populations. We examined the potential for apparent competition to limit the recovery of Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis sierrae), an endangered subspecies under the US Endangered Species Act. Using a combination of location, demographic, and habitat data, we assessed whether cougar (Puma concolor) predation on endangered bighorn sheep was a consequence of their winter range overlap with abundant mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). Consistent with the apparent competition hypothesis, bighorn sheep populations with higher spatial overlap with deer exhibited higher rates of cougar predation which had additive effects on adult survival. Bighorn sheep killed by cougars were primarily located within deer winter ranges, even though those areas constituted only a portion of the bighorn sheep winter ranges. We suspect that variation in sympatry between bighorn sheep and deer populations was largely driven by differences in habitat selection among bighorn sheep herds. Indeed, bighorn sheep herds that experienced the highest rates of predation and the greatest spatial overlap with deer also exhibited the strongest selection for low elevation habitat. Although predator-mediated apparent competition may limit some populations of bighorn sheep, it is not the primary factor limiting all populations, suggesting that the dynamics of different herds are highly idiosyncratic. Management plans for endangered species should consider the spatial distributions of key competitors and predators to reduce the potential for apparent competition to hijack conservation success.     

Colostral Transfer in the Goat of Antibodies Against Corynebacterium Pseudotuberculosis and the Antibody Status of Kids During the First 10 Months of Life

Serum and colostrum samples from goats at parturition and serum samples from their kids at 3 days and at 4, 7, 10 and 12 weeks after birth were examined for the presence of antibodies to Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis hemolysins. The hemolysis inhibition test (HIT) was used. High correlation was found between titre values of antihemolysins in serum and colostrum of goats at parturition (correlation coefficient r = 0.83; P < 0.01). Intermediate correlation was found between antihemolysin titre in colostrum of goats and in the sera of their kids 3 days old (r = 0.56; 0.01 < P < 0.05). Furthermore, titre values for 3 day-old kids showed high correlation with the antihemolysin titres when the kids aged 4 and 7 weeks (r = 0.76 and 0.85, respectively; P < 0.01). Antihemolysin titres decreased linearly in kids from 3 days to 10 weeks old. Calculated half life of antibodies was 12 days. Most of the kids had detectable antibodies up to the age of 5–6 weeks. None of the kids were seropositive at 2½ months of age. Serum samples collected monthly from a group of kids chosen at random, aged 7–10 months, contained antibodies to hemolysins in half of the animals at the first testing. At the age of 10 months 14 out of 15 kids were seropositive. Thus, most of the kids from this herd were exposed to G. pseudotuberculosis antigens during summer and autumn of their first year of life. Prophylactic measures against caseous lymphadenitis is briefly discussed.     

A study of the home ranges of free-ranging Exmoor ponies

The ecology of the free-ranging Exmoor ponies has not previously been studied. In this investigation, the locations of the few pure-bred herds are given, together with information on their populations, and the reasons for selecting the Withypool Common herds are outlined. The features of this main study area, the types of ponies and their special groupings are described in some detail. The home ranges of the Exmoor herds are examined on an annual and monthly basis, and their relationships to each other and to that of the mongrel herd are studied. This is followed by information on the changing patterns of the two Exmoor pony ranges and a discussion of the significance of inter-stallion relationships. Finally, the home range systems are assessed for features of territoriality.     

Climate-Driven Effects of Fire on Winter Habitat for Caribou in the Alaskan-Yukon Arctic

Climatic warming has direct implications for fire-dominated disturbance patterns in northern ecosystems. A transforming wildfire regime is altering plant composition and successional patterns, thus affecting the distribution and potentially the abundance of large herbivores. Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) are an important subsistence resource for communities throughout the north and a species that depends on terrestrial lichen in late-successional forests and tundra systems. Projected increases in area burned and reductions in stand ages may reduce lichen availability within caribou winter ranges. Sufficient reductions in lichen abundance could alter the capacity of these areas to support caribou populations. To assess the potential role of a changing fire regime on winter habitat for caribou, we used a simulation modeling platform, two global circulation models (GCMs), and a moderate emissions scenario to project annual fire characteristics and the resulting abundance of lichen-producing vegetation types (i.e., spruce forests and tundra >60 years old) across a modeling domain that encompassed the winter ranges of the Central Arctic and Porcupine caribou herds in the Alaskan-Yukon Arctic. Fires were less numerous and smaller in tundra compared to spruce habitats throughout the 90-year projection for both GCMs. Given the more likely climate trajectory, we projected that the Porcupine caribou herd, which winters primarily in the boreal forest, could be expected to experience a greater reduction in lichen-producing winter habitats (−21%) than the Central Arctic herd that wintered primarily in the arctic tundra (−11%). Our results suggest that caribou herds wintering in boreal forest will undergo fire-driven reductions in lichen-producing habitats that will, at a minimum, alter their distribution. Range shifts of caribou resulting from fire-driven changes to winter habitat may diminish access to caribou for rural communities that reside in fire-prone areas.     

Chorioptic Mange (Acarina: Psoroptidae) in Domestic and Wild Ruminants in Israel

In a 20-year-survey, 9364 dairy cattle in 324 herds kept under a zero-grazing management, 1252 beef cattle in 46 herds grazing all the year round, 3347 sheep in 134 herds (only 26 are grazing herds), and 872 goats in 47 herds (only 20 are grazing) were examined. The mites collected from cattle were identified as Chorioptes texanus only, and those from sheep, goats and gazelles were identified as C. bovis. Chorioptic mange was not diagnozed in grazing beef cattle, ibexes and housed animals (as compared to grazing herds), and in rams and billy goats. Holstein-Israeli bulls kept in insemination centres were not clinically infested, whereas four Charolais bulls were infested with chorioptic mange. Infestation rate was higher in older animals than in younger ones. Hoggets and young goats over 10 months and heifers over 13 months were found clinically infested with Choriopic mites. Lesions were not usually extensive and occurred mainly in predilection sites. The ocular form in sheep and the groin form in goats are very uncommon and apparently are reported for the first time. Chorioptic mange was recorded generally throughout the year. In our study seasonal distribution could not be demonstrated in cattle, while in sheep and goats the highest infestation rate occurred in February to March and the lowest in August and September.     

Seasonal home ranges of elephants (Loxodonta africana) and their movements between Sabi Sand Reserve and Kruger National Park

We studied the seasonal home ranges and space use of three breeding herds of elephants (Loxodonta africana) for 3–5 years in an area comprising South Africa’s Sabi Sand Reserve (SSR) and Kruger National Park (KNP). Global Positioning System (GPS) transmitters were attached to the matriarchs of three herds and set to transmit a single daily location. Each herd was located in SSR 31%, 60% and 84% of the time. During the wet summer months, the herds walked longer distances and occupied larger seasonal home ranges than during the corresponding dry winter period. Core areas were centred on riverine habitats within both parks, with all three herds exhibiting closer distances to rivers and artificial water holes than would be expected if they were moving randomly. Home ranges within SSR overlapped much of the park. However, in KNP they occupied discrete areas with little overlap. Much of the movement between the two parks occurred along well‐defined corridors. This study shows that elephant herds depended upon the resources of both parks, providing an insight into their within‐ and between‐seasonal movements. This highlights the importance of ongoing co‐operation between wildlife managers from both parks when forming policy.     

Habitat loss and raptor predation: disentangling long- and short-term causes of red grouse declines

The number of red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) shot in the UK has declined by 50% during the 20th century This decline has coincided with reductions in the area of suitable habitat and recoveries in the populations of some avian predators. Here we use long-term records of shooting bags and a large-scale manipulation of raptor density to disentangle the effects of habitat loss and raptor predation on grouse populations. The numbers of grouse harvested on the Eskdale half of Langholm Moor in southern Scotland declined significantly during 1913-1990 and grouse bags from the whole moor from 1950 to 1990 exhibited an almost identical but non-significant trend. Hen harriers (Circus cyaneus) and peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) were absent or bred at low densities on this moor throughout this period but heather-dominant vegetation declined by 48% between 1948 and 1988. Harrier and peregrine breeding numbers on Langholm Moor increased to high levels following protection in 1990 whilst grouse density and grouse bags declined year after year until shooting was abandoned in 1998. The prediction of a peak in grouse bags on Langholm Moor in 1996 based on the patterns of bags during 1950-1990 was supported by the observed peaks in 1997 on two nearby moors with few raptors which formerly cycled in synchrony with Langholm Moor. This study demonstrates that, whilst long-term declines in grouse bags were most probably due to habitat loss, high levels of raptor predation subsequently limited the grouse population and suppressed a cycle. This study thus offers support to theoretical models which predict that generalist predators may suppress cycles in prey populations.     

Holocene sedimentary history of some coastal plains in Hokkaido,Japan IV. Diatom assemblages in the sediments from Kushiro moor (2)

Diatom assemblages of sediments obtained from three sites on Kushiro Moor were analyzed to investigate the Holocene sedimentary history. The results showed that: 1) The Takkobu site was originally at the bottom of the paleo-Kushiro Bay, and after-wards the paleo-Takkobu Lagoon developed, became sealed off, and changed to a freshwater lake. The succession to peat moor probably began about 2000 yr B.P. at the Takkobu site. 2) The Tsurui site was originally at the bottom of the paleo-Kushiro Bay, then changed to the paleo-Kushiro Lagoon and became peat moor as a result of the first Holocene regression, which finished about 3600 yr B.P. The site then returned to a brackish lake again, probably due to the second Holocene transgression between 3600 and 3000 yr B.P., thereafter passing through brackish lake and freshwater lake stages, and eventually becaming peat moor at about 2000 yr B.P., 3) At the Chuo site, the second paleo-Kushiro Bay developed again as a result of the second Holocene transgression, which finished about 3000 yr B.P. Thereafter, brackish or freshwater lakes, rivers, and then peat moor developed in the central area of Kushiro Moor. 4) The second marine diatom zone (MD₂ Zone), which indicates the second Holocene transgression, complete by about 3000 yr B.P., is detected only at the Chuo site in the central area of Kushiro Moor.     

Variation of group size among African buffalo herds in a forest-savanna mosaic landscape

Documenting within species group size variation is important to completely understand social organization within species and to interpret variation among species. Here, I investigated group size of African buffalo Syncerus caffer over 2 years in a heterogeneous landscape. African buffalo use closed continuous forest and vast open savannas, and anecdotal observations suggest that habitat type influences their social structure. While the Cape buffalo Syncerus caffer caffer is well studied, few data exist for the forest-dwelling Syncerus caffer nanus . I observed forest buffalo at Lopé National Park, Gabon, and examined variation of group size. Eighteen forest buffalo herds used the study area with an estimated population of 342 individuals (∼5 buffalo km⁻²). The mean group size for the 18 herds was 12 ± 2 (range of means=3–24), considerably smaller than Cape buffalo herds. For eight radiocollared forest buffalo, the mean group size was stable, varying little with time of day, across seasons, or between savanna and marsh habitat. However, herd size varied widely across herds, from fewer than 10 individuals in the smallest herds to more than 20 buffalo in the largest. Large herd size is associated with home ranges that contain substantial areas of open habitat, and thus more food resources than forested habitats.     

Impacts of climate change on the seasonal distribution of migratory caribou

Arctic ecosystems are especially vulnerable to global climate change as temperature and precipitation regimes are altered. An ecologically and socially highly important northern terrestrial species that may be impacted by climate change is the caribou, Rangifer tarandus . We predicted the current and potential future occurrence of two migratory herds of caribou [Rivière George herd (RG) and Rivière-aux-Feuilles (RAF) herd] under a Canadian General Circulation Model climate change scenario, across all seasons in the Québec–Labrador peninsula, using climatic and habitat predictor variables. Argos satellite-tracking collars have been deployed on 213 caribou between 1988 and 2003 with locations recorded every 4–5 days. In addition, we assembled a database of climate (temperature, precipitation, snowfall, timing and length of growing season) and habitat data obtained from the SPOT VEGETATION satellite sensor. Logistic regression models indicated that both climatic and physical habitat variables were significant predictors of current migratory caribou occurrence. Migratory caribou appeared to prefer regions with higher snowfall and lichen availability in the fall and winter. In the summer, caribou preferred cooler areas likely corresponding to a lower prevalence of insects, and they avoided disturbed and recently burnt areas. Climate change projections using climate data predicted an increased range for the RAF herd and decreased range for the RG herd during 2040–2069, limiting the herds to northeastern regions of the Québec–Labrador peninsula. Direct and indirect consequences of climate change on these migratory caribou herds possibly include alteration in habitat use, migration patterns, foraging behaviour, and demography, in addition to social and economic stress to arctic and subarctic native human populations.     

Coxiella burnetii vaginal shedding and antibody responses in dairy goat herds in a context of clinical Q fever outbreaks

This study, carried out in three goat herds, was aimed at describing individual responses to Q fever infection in an abortive context, focusing on both antibody and shedding levels. Seroprevalence of Coxiella burnetii (Cb) infection and vaginal shedding of 1083 goats were investigated using ELISA and realtime qPCR assays, respectively. At the end of the outbreaks, a seroprevalence of 45.0% was found, and vaginal shedding appeared massive with levels above 10(4) Cb per swab in 42.3% of the whole population and above 10(6) Cb per swab for 90.9% of aborted goats. Susceptible animals (i.e. seronegative nonshedders) were unfrequent (31.2%), most of them being kids (94.7%). Seronegative females were predominant among nonshedders and conversely seropositive ones, predominant among high shedders (above 10(6) Cb per swab). Nevertheless, at least 43.3% of seronegative goats shed bacteria confirming the need of interpreting serology on a herd scale. The subsequent farrowing period was characterized by a significant reduction in the number of clinical cases. Females that had already aborted were more often involved than others. Shedding quantities remained high, particularly for primiparous does, mainly when facing infection for the first time. Thus, Q fever control must be based on both preventive measures directed to the preherd and environmental precautions.     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in goats by the indirect haemagglutination, immunofluorescence and immunoenzymatic tests in the region of Uberlândia, Brazil

A comparative study of the indirect haemagglutination (IHA), immunofluorescence (IFAT) and immunoenzymatic (ELISA) tests was carried out to determine the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in goats. One hundred seventy-four serum samples were obtained from four goat herds from the region of Uberlandia, State of Minas Gerais. The distribution of the animals, according to their origin, was as follow: 71 from herd I; 39 from herd II; 37 from herd III; and 27 from herd IV. Serum samples were analyzed by IHA, IFAT and ELISA, considering the reactivity of the serum samples at dilution > or = 1:64 as cut off titer for the three tests. A global seroprevalence of 18.4% was observed, with significantly higher positivity rate in the herd II (66.7%) and older animals (> 36 months). A high and significant positive correlation was found between the titers obtained by the IHA versus IFAT, IHA versus ELISA, and ELISA versus IFAT. Therefore, it can be concluded that the three analyzed tests have shown to be highly concordant and appropriate for epidemiological surveys of Toxoplasma infection in goats. Although the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection in goats is relatively low in this region as compared to other regions of the country, adequate management might be useful and essential to control the infection in the goat herds.