Sca1, a previously undescribed paralog from autotransporter protein-encoding genes in Rickettsia species

Background  

Among the 17 genes encoding autotransporter proteins of the "surface cell antigen" (sca) family in the currently sequenced Rickettsia genomes, ompA, sca5 (ompB) and sca4 (gene D), have been extensively used for identification and phylogenetic purposes for Rickettsia species. However, none of these genes is present in all 20 currently validated Rickettsia species. Of the remaining 14 sca genes, sca1 is the only gene to be present in all nine sequenced Rickettsia genomes. To estimate whether the sca1 gene is present in all Rickettsia species and its usefulness as an identification and phylogenetic tool, we searched for sca1genes in the four published Rickettsia genomes and amplified and sequenced this gene in the remaining 16 validated Rickettsia species.     

Evolution and diversity of Rickettsia bacteria

Background  

Rickettsia are intracellular symbionts of eukaryotes that are best known for infecting and causing serious diseases in humans and other mammals. All known vertebrate-associated Rickettsia are vectored by arthropods as part of their life-cycle, and many other Rickettsia are found exclusively in arthropods with no known secondary host. However, little is known about the biology of these latter strains. Here, we have identified 20 new strains of Rickettsia from arthropods, and constructed a multi-gene phylogeny of the entire genus which includes these new strains.     

Wolbachia: Evolutionary novelty in a rickettsial bacteria

Background  

Although closely related, the alpha-proteobacteria Wolbachia and the Rickettsiacae (Rickettsia and Ehrlichia), employ different evolutionary life history strategies. Wolbachia are obligate endocellular symbionts that infect an extraordinary host range and, in contrast to the infectious and pathogenic Rickettsia and Ehrlichia, profoundly influence host reproductive biology.     

Co-infection and localization of secondary symbionts in two whitefly species

Background  

Whiteflies are cosmopolitan phloem-feeding pests that cause serious damage to many crops worldwide due to direct feeding and vectoring of many plant viruses. The sweetpotato whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) and the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) are two of the most widespread and damaging whitefly species. To complete their unbalanced diet, whiteflies harbor the obligatory bacterium Portiera aleyrodidarum. B. tabaci further harbors a diverse array of secondary symbionts, including Hamiltonella, Arsenophonus, Cardinium, Wolbachia, Rickettsia and Fritschea. T. vaporariorum is only known to harbor P. aleyrodidarum and Arsenophonus. We conducted a study to survey the distribution of whitefly species in Croatia, their infection status by secondary symbionts, and the spatial distribution of these symbionts in the developmental stages of the two whitefly species.     

Proposing a new hypothesis: Rickettsia spp. as a mechanism maintaining parapatry between two Australian reptile tick species

This study investigates two parasitic reptile ticks — Bothriocroton hydrosauri and Amblyomma limbatum — of the sleepy lizard (Tiliqua rugosa) that abut at a 1–2 km wide parapatric boundary in South Australia. Long‐term research has investigated potential mechanisms to explain the maintenance of this boundary but has not uncovered why the distribution of A. limbatum does not extend further south. It has been previously hypothesised that pathogens may be responsible for maintaining parapatric boundaries. Rickettsia spp. has previously been reported in B. hydrosauri ticks. This study explored whether Rickettsia spp. occurs in co‐occurring A. limbatum. We observed that Rickettsia spp. was absent from all A. limbatum ticks and that 83% of examined B. hydrosauri were found to be positive with a spotted fever group Rickettsia strain. This study puts forward the hypothesis that Rickettsia spp. could contribute to the maintenance of the Mt Mary parapatric boundary between these two tick species. Further work is required to determine whether Rickettsia spp. can be transmitted from B. hydrosauri to A. limbatum and — if transmission can occur — to explore whether Rickettsia is lethal to A. limbatum ticks.     

Proposal to create subspecies of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rickettsia conorii</Emphasis> based on multi-locus sequence typing and an emended description of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rickettsia conorii</Emphasis>

Background  

Rickettsiae closely related to the Malish strain, the reference Rickettsia conorii strain, include Indian tick typhus rickettsia (ITTR), Israeli spotted fever rickettsia (ISFR), and Astrakhan fever rickettsia (AFR). Although closely related genotypically, they are distinct serotypically. Using multilocus sequence typing (MLST), we have recently found that distinct serotypes may not always represent distinct species within the Rickettsia genus. We investigated the possibility of classifying rickettsiae closely related to R. conorii as R. conorii subspecies as proposed by the ad hoc committee on reconciliation of approaches to bacterial systematics. For this, we first estimated their genotypic variability by using MLST including the sequencing of 5 genes, of 31 rickettsial isolates closely related to R. conorii strain Malish, 1 ITTR isolate, 2 isolates and 3 tick amplicons of AFR, and 2 ISFR isolates. Then, we selected a representative of each MLST genotype and used multi-spacer typing (MST) and mouse serotyping to estimate their degree of taxonomic relatedness.     

Comparison of real-time quantitative PCR and culture for the diagnosis of emerging Rickettsioses

Background

Isolation of Rickettsia species from skin biopsies may be replaced by PCR. We evaluated culture sensitivity compared to PCR based on sampling delay and previous antibiotic treatment.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Skin biopsies and ticks from patients with suspected Rickettsia infection were screened for Rickettsia spp. using qPCR, and positive results were amplified and sequenced for the gltA and ompA genes. Immunofluorescence for spotted fever group rickettsial antigens was done for 79 patients. All skin biopsies and only ticks that tested positive using qPCR were cultured in human embryonic lung (HEL) fibroblasts using the centrifugation-shell vial technique. Patients and ticks were classified as definitely having rickettsioses if there was direct evidence of infection with a Rickettsia sp. using culture or molecular assays or in patients if serology was positive. Data on previous antibiotic treatments were obtained for patients with rickettsiosis. Rickettsia spp. infection was diagnosed in 47 out of 145 patients (32%), 41 by PCR and 12 by culture, whereas 3 isolates were obtained from PCR negative biopsies. For 3 of the patients serology was positive although PCR and culture were negative. Rickettsia africae was the most common detected species (n = 25, [17.2%]) and isolated bacterium (n = 5, [3.4%]). The probability of isolating Rickettsia spp. was 12 times higher in untreated patients and 5.4 times higher in patients from our hometown. Rickettsia spp. was amplified in 24 out of 95 ticks (25%) and we isolated 7 R. slovaca and 1 R. raoultii from Dermacentor marginatus.

Conclusions/Significance

We found a positive correlation between the bacteria copies and the isolation success in skin biopsies and ticks. Culture remains critical for strain analysis but is less sensitive than serology and PCR for the diagnosis of a Rickettsia infection.     

Visualization of pseudogenes in intracellular bacteria reveals the different tracks to gene destruction

Background  

Pseudogenes reveal ancestral gene functions. Some obligate intracellular bacteria, such as Mycobacterium leprae and Rickettsia spp., carry substantial fractions of pseudogenes. Until recently, horizontal gene transfers were considered to be rare events in obligate host-associated bacteria.     

Detection of Rickettsia spp in Ticks by MALDI-TOF MS

Background

Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) has been shown to be an effective tool for the rapid identification of arthropods, including tick vectors of human diseases.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the use of MALDI-TOF MS to identify tick species, and to determine the presence of rickettsia pathogens in the infected Ticks. Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Dermacentor marginatus Ticks infected or not by R. conorii conorii or R. slovaca, respectively, were used as experimental models. The MS profiles generated from protein extracts prepared from tick legs exhibited mass peaks that distinguished the infected and uninfected Ticks, and successfully discriminated the Rickettsia spp. A blind test was performed using Ticks that were laboratory-reared, collected in the field or removed from patients and infected or not by Rickettsia spp. A query against our in-lab arthropod MS reference database revealed that the species and infection status of all Ticks were correctly identified at the species and infection status levels.

Conclusions/Significance

Taken together, the present work demonstrates the utility of MALDI-TOF MS for a dual identification of tick species and intracellular bacteria. Therefore, MALDI-TOF MS is a relevant tool for the accurate detection of Rickettsia spp in Ticks for both field monitoring and entomological diagnosis. The present work offers new perspectives for the monitoring of other vector borne diseases that present public health concerns.     

Rickettsia Phylogenomics: Unwinding the Intricacies of Obligate Intracellular Life

Background

Completed genome sequences are rapidly increasing for Rickettsia, obligate intracellular α-proteobacteria responsible for various human diseases, including epidemic typhus and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In light of phylogeny, the establishment of orthologous groups (OGs) of open reading frames (ORFs) will distinguish the core rickettsial genes and other group specific genes (class 1 OGs or C1OGs) from those distributed indiscriminately throughout the rickettsial tree (class 2 OG or C2OGs).

Methodology/Principal Findings

We present 1823 representative (no gene duplications) and 259 non-representative (at least one gene duplication) rickettsial OGs. While the highly reductive (∼1.2 MB) Rickettsia genomes range in predicted ORFs from 872 to 1512, a core of 752 OGs was identified, depicting the essential Rickettsia genes. Unsurprisingly, this core lacks many metabolic genes, reflecting the dependence on host resources for growth and survival. Additionally, we bolster our recent reclassification of Rickettsia by identifying OGs that define the AG (ancestral group), TG (typhus group), TRG (transitional group), and SFG (spotted fever group) rickettsiae. OGs for insect-associated species, tick-associated species and species that harbor plasmids were also predicted. Through superimposition of all OGs over robust phylogeny estimation, we discern between C1OGs and C2OGs, the latter depicting genes either decaying from the conserved C1OGs or acquired laterally. Finally, scrutiny of non-representative OGs revealed high levels of split genes versus gene duplications, with both phenomena confounding gene orthology assignment. Interestingly, non-representative OGs, as well as OGs comprised of several gene families typically involved in microbial pathogenicity and/or the acquisition of virulence factors, fall predominantly within C2OG distributions.

Conclusion/Significance

Collectively, we determined the relative conservation and distribution of 14354 predicted ORFs from 10 rickettsial genomes across robust phylogeny estimation. The data, available at PATRIC (PathoSystems Resource Integration Center), provide novel information for unwinding the intricacies associated with Rickettsia pathogenesis, expanding the range of potential diagnostic, vaccine and therapeutic targets.     

Origin and Evolution of Rickettsial Plasmids

Background

Rickettsia species are strictly intracellular bacteria that have undergone a reductive genomic evolution. Despite their allopatric lifestyle, almost half of the 26 currently validated Rickettsia species have plasmids. In order to study the origin, evolutionary history and putative roles of rickettsial plasmids, we investigated the evolutionary processes that have shaped 20 plasmids belonging to 11 species, using comparative genomics and phylogenetic analysis between rickettsial, microbial and non-microbial genomes.

Results

Plasmids were differentially present among Rickettsia species. The 11 species had 1 to 4 plasmid (s) with a size ranging from 12 kb to 83 kb. We reconstructed pRICO, the last common ancestor of the current rickettsial plasmids. pRICO was vertically inherited mainly from Rickettsia/Orientia chromosomes and diverged vertically into a single or multiple plasmid(s) in each species. These plasmids also underwent a reductive evolution by progressive gene loss, similar to that observed in rickettsial chromosomes, possibly leading to cryptic plasmids or complete plasmid loss. Moreover, rickettsial plasmids exhibited ORFans, recent gene duplications and evidence of horizontal gene transfer events with rickettsial and non-rickettsial genomes mainly from the α/γ-proteobacteria lineages. Genes related to maintenance and plasticity of plasmids, and to adaptation and resistance to stress mostly evolved under vertical and/or horizontal processes. Those involved in nucleotide/carbohydrate transport and metabolism were under the influence of vertical evolution only, whereas genes involved in cell wall/membrane/envelope biogenesis, cycle control, amino acid/lipid/coenzyme and secondary metabolites biosynthesis, transport and metabolism underwent mainly horizontal transfer events.

Conclusion

Rickettsial plasmids had a complex evolution, starting with a vertical inheritance followed by a reductive evolution associated with increased complexity via horizontal gene transfer as well as gene duplication and genesis. The plasmids are plastic and mosaic structures that may play biological roles similar to or distinct from their co-residing chromosomes in an obligate intracellular lifestyle.     

Determination of vertebral heart score in three species of Spider monkey (Ateles fusciceps,A. hybridus and A. paniscus)

Background

The vertebral heart score (VHS) is a method of evaluation of cardiac size well documented in domestic mammals and in other primate species, and the aim of this study was to determine the VHS in three species of Spider monkey.

Methods

In this retrospective study, right lateral radiographs of thirty clinically well animals were reviewed and VHS determined. The species included were Ateles fusciceps (n=17), Ateles hybridus (n=8) and Ateles paniscus (n=5).

Results

The VHS was found to vary between species and was 9.73±0.81 for A. fusciceps, 10.53±0.37 for A. hybridus and 10.45±0.27 for A. paniscus.

Conclusions

The observed values appear consistent with values determined for other primate species. There was statistically significant variation noted between species, and so VHS should be considered species‐specific in this genus. The values determined may be of benefit in objectively evaluating cardiac size in the species investigated.     

Inhibitory effects of Eucalyptus globulus on understorey plant growth and species richness are greater in non‐native regions

Aim

We studied the novel weapons hypothesis in the context of the broadly distributed tree species Eucalyptus globulus. We evaluated the hypothesis that this Australian species would produce stronger inhibitory effects on species from its non‐native range than on species from its native range.

Location

We worked in four countries where this species is exotic (U.S.A., Chile, India, Portugal) and one country where it is native (Australia).

Time period

2009–2012.

Major taxa studied

Plants.

Methods

We compared species composition, richness and height of plant communities in 20 paired plots underneath E. globulus individuals and open areas in two sites within its native range and each non‐native region. We also compared effects of litter leachates of E. globulus on root growth of seedlings in species from Australia, Chile, the U.S.A. and India.

Results

In all sites and countries, the plant community under E. globulus canopies had lower species richness than did the plant community in open areas. However, the reduction was much greater in the non‐native ranges: species richness declined by an average of 51% in the eight non‐native sites versus 8% in the two native Australian sites. The root growth of 15 out of 21 species from the non‐native range were highly suppressed by E. globulus litter leachates, whereas the effect of litter leachate varied from facilitation to suppression for six species native to Australia. The mean reduction in root growth for Australian plants was significantly lower than for plants from the U.S.A., Chile and India.

Main conclusions

Our results show biogeographical differences in the impact of an exotic species on understorey plant communities. Consistent with the novel weapons hypothesis, our findings suggest that different adaptations of species from the native and non‐native ranges to biochemical compounds produced by an exotic species may play a role in these biogeographical differences.     

Human appropriation of net primary production as driver of change in landscape-scale vertebrate richness

Aim

Land use is the most pervasive driver of biodiversity loss. Predicting its impact on species richness (SR) is often based on indicators of habitat loss. However, the degradation of habitats, especially through land-use intensification, also affects species. Here, we evaluate whether an integrative metric of land-use intensity, the human appropriation of net primary production, is correlated with the decline of SR in used landscapes across the globe.

Location

Global.

Time period

Present.

Major taxa studied

Birds, mammals and amphibians.

Methods

Based on species range maps (spatial resolution: 20 km × 20 km) and an area-of-habitat approach, we calibrated a “species–energy model” by correlating the SR of three groups of vertebrates with net primary production and biogeographical covariables in “wilderness” areas (i.e., those where available energy is assumed to be still at pristine levels). We used this model to project the difference between pristine SR and the SR corresponding to the energy remaining in used landscapes (i.e., SR loss expected owing to human energy extraction outside wilderness areas). We validated the projected species loss by comparison with the realized and impending loss reconstructed from habitat conversion and documented by national Red Lists.

Results

Species–energy models largely explained landscape-scale variation of mapped SR in wilderness areas (adjusted R²-values: 0.79–0.93). Model-based projections of SR loss were lower, on average, than reconstructed and documented ones, but the spatial patterns were correlated significantly, with stronger correlation in mammals (Pearson's r = 0.68) than in amphibians (r = 0.60) and birds (r = 0.57).

Main conclusions

Our results suggest that the human appropriation of net primary production is a useful indicator of heterotrophic species loss in used landscapes, hence we recommend its inclusion in models based on species–area relationships to improve predictions of land-use-driven biodiversity loss.     

Shift from facilitative to neutral interactions by the cushion plant Silene acaulis along a primary succession gradient

Background

The stress‐gradient hypothesis predicts a shift from facilitative to competitive plant interactions with decreasing abiotic stress. This has been supported by studies along elevation and temperature gradients, but also challenged by the hypothesis of a facilitation collapse at extremely harsh sites. Although facilitation is known to be important in primary succession, few studies have examined these hypotheses along primary succession gradients.

Aim

To examine whether there is a relationship between the presence of the circumpolar cushion plant Silene acaulis and other species, and if so, whether there is a shift between positive and negative interactions along a primary succession gradient in a glacier foreland.

Location

Finse, southern Norway.

Methods

We examined the performance of the common alpine forb Bistorta vivipara, species richness of vascular plants, bryophytes and lichens, and the number of seedlings and fertile vascular plants in S. acaulis cushions, and control plots without S. acaulis, along a succession gradient with increasing distance from a glacier front, and thus decreasing abiotic stress. To examine if S. acaulis cushions modify the abiotic environment, we recorded soil temperature, moisture, organic content and pH in cushions and control plots.

Results

Bistorta vivipara performed better, as shown by bigger leaves in S. acaulis cushions compared to control plots in the harshest part of the gradient close to the glacier. There were few differences in B. vivipara performance between cushion and control plots in the more benign environment further away from the glacier. This suggests a shift from facilitative to mainly neutral interactions by S. acaulis on the performance of B. vivipara with decreasing abiotic stress. A trend, although not significant, of higher vascular species richness and fertility inside S. acaulis cushions along the whole gradient, suggests that S. acaulis also facilitates community‐level species richness. The causal mechanism of this facilitation is likely that the cushions buffer extreme temperatures.

Conclusions

Our results support the stress‐gradient hypothesis for the relationship between the cushion plant S. acaulis and the performance of a single species along a primary succession gradient in a glacier foreland. S. acaulis also tended to increase vascular plant species richness and fertility regardless of stress level along the gradient, suggesting facilitation at the community level. We found no collapse of facilitation at the most stressful end of the gradient in this alpine glacier foreland.     

Conservation prioritisation through genomic reconstruction of demographic histories applied to two endangered suids in the Malay Archipelago

Aim

The biodiversity of the Malay Archipelago is the product of the region's rich biogeographical history with periods of island connectivity and isolation during the Pleistocene glacial cycles. Here, the case of two endemic suid species, the Javan (Sus verrucosus) and Bawean (S. blouchi) warty pigs, was used to illustrate how biogeographic processes and recent anthropogenic pressures can shape demographic histories with significant implications for species conservation.

Location

Malay Archipelago, with focus on Bawean and Java.

Methods

We employed genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms from the Porcine SNP60 v2 BeadChip to assess interspecific genetic differentiation, to estimate divergence times and to perform demographic model selection.

Results

In contrast to the hypothesis of recent divergence during the last glacial maximum, S. blouchi was found to have diverged from S. verrucosus at least 166 k years ago following a founder event. The contemporary S. blouchi population was characterised by a recent bottleneck that reduced the effective population size to less than 20. The genomic assessment supports the single species status of S. blouchi, as was previously proposed based on morphometrics. The demographic history of S. verrucosus showed evidence of secondary contact with the sympatric banded pig (S. scrofa vittatus) that colonised Java 70 k years ago.

Main Conclusions

While the Javan and Bawean warty pigs have persisted throughout the Pleistocene climatic oscillations, contemporary pressures from human activities threaten their survival and immediate action should be taken to grant legal protection to both S. verrucosus and S. blouchi. This study highlighted the use of demographic history modelling using genomic data to identify evolutionary significant units and inform conservation.     

Detection of spotted fever group Rickettsia spp. from bird ticks in the U.K.

Migratory birds are known to play a role in the long‐distance transportation of microorganisms. To investigate whether this is true for rickettsial agents, we undertook a study to characterize tick infestation in populations of the migratory passerine bird Riparia riparia (Passeriformes: Hirundinidae), the sand martin. A total of 194 birds were sampled and ticks removed from infested birds. The ticks were identified as female Ixodes lividus (Acari: Ixodidae) using standard morphological and molecular techniques. Tick DNA was assayed to detect Rickettsia spp. using polymerase chain reaction and DNA was sequenced for species identification. A single Rickettsia spp. was detected in 100% of the ticks and was designated Rickettsia sp. IXLI1. Partial sequences of 17‐kDa and ompA genes showed greatest similarity to Rickettsia sp. TCM1, an aetiological agent of Japanese spotted fever‐like illness, previously described in Thailand. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Rickettsia sp. IXLI1 fitted neatly into a group containing strains Rickettsia japonica, Rickettsia sp. strain Davousti and Rickettsia heilongjiangensis. In conclusion, this research shows that U.K. migratory passerine birds host ticks infected with Rickettsia species and contribute to the geographic distribution of spotted fever rickettsial agents.     

Reversing expansion of Calamagrostis epigejos in a grassland biodiversity hotspot: Hemiparasitic Rhinanthus major does a better job than increased mowing intensity

Questions

Can hemiparasitic Rhinanthus major originating from a local population suppress the competitive clonal grass Calamagrostis epigejos and reverse its expansion in species‐rich semi‐natural grasslands? Does sowing seeds of R. major facilitate restoration of target meadow vegetation? Is R. major more beneficial for biodiversity restoration/conservation than increased mowing intensity, a conventional measure to suppress C. epigejos?

Location

?ertoryje National Nature Reserve, Bílé Karpaty (White Carpathians) Protected Landscape Area, Czech Republic.

Methods

We conducted a before‐after‐control‐impact experiment in meadow patches heavily infested by C. epigejos: eight blocks, each containing four plots with four treatment combinations: (1) traditional management, i.e. mowing once in summer, (2) mowing in summer and autumn (3) mowing in summer and seed sowing of R. major, (4) mowing in summer and autumn and seed sowing of R. major. Above‐ground biomass of C. epigejos and vegetation composition of each of the plots were monitored every year from 2013 to 2016. To assess the effects of treatments, we analysed biomass production of C. epigejos, herb layer cover and vegetation composition.

Results

Both sowing R. major and an additional autumn meadow cut significantly suppressed C. epigejos. Their effects were additive and of comparable size. Both treatments also had significant but markedly different effects on community composition. Rhinanthus major facilitated directional community composition change towards the regional Brachypodio‐Molinetum meadows. In contrast, increased mowing intensity significantly decreased frequency of threatened species, which however may have also been influenced by R. major.

Conclusions

Sowing of autochthonous R. major seeds was demonstrated as an efficient tool to suppress C. epigejos and facilitate community restoration. It can be combined with an additional meadow cut to further accelerate decline of the grass. The additional cut should however be used as a short‐term practice (1–2 years) only to minimize potential negative effects of its long‐term application on some threatened plant species. The effects of R. major are comparable to those of Rhinanthus alectorolophus reported previously. As a species occurring naturally in species‐rich dry grasslands, R. major has a broader and longer‐term application potential than R. alectorolophus in ecological restoration and conservation of these communities.     

Development of methods for the genetic manipulation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Flavobacterium columnare</Emphasis>

Background  

Flavobacterium columnare is the causative agent of columnaris disease, a disease affecting many freshwater fish species. Methods for the genetic manipulation for some of the species within the Bacteroidetes, including members of the genus Flavobacterium, have been described, but these methods were not adapted to work with F. columnare.     

Screening of white‐rot fungi for bioprocessing of wheat straw into ruminant feed

Aim

In this study, the biological variation for improvement of the nutritive value of wheat straw by 12 Ceriporiopsis subvermispora, 10 Pleurotus eryngii and 10 Lentinula edodes strains was assessed. Screening of the best performing strains within each species was made based on the in vitro degradability of fungal‐treated wheat straw.

Methods and Results

Wheat straw was inoculated with each strain for 7 weeks of solid state fermentation. Weekly samples were evaluated for in vitro gas production (IVGP) in buffered rumen fluid for 72 h. Out of the 32 fungal strains studied, 17 strains showed a significantly higher (P < 0·05) IVGP compared to the control after 7 weeks (227·7 ml g^?1 OM). The three best Ceriporiopsis subvermispora strains showed a mean IVGP of 297·0 ml g^?1 OM, while the three best P. eryngii and L. edodes strains showed a mean IVGP of 257·8 and 291·5 ml g^?1 OM, respectively.

Conclusion

Ceriporiopsis subvermispora strains show an overall high potential to improve the ruminal degradability of wheat straw, followed by L. edodes and P. eryngii strains.

Significance and Impact of the Study

Large variation exists within and among different fungal species in the valorization of wheat straw, which offers opportunities to improve the fungal genotype by breeding.