Demodicosis in a mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) from Saskatchewan, Canada

Infestation of deer with Demodex spp. mites has been described in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and in Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) in North America, as well as in four species of deer in Europe. We describe Demodex sp. infestation in an adult female mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) with skin lesions found dead near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. This is believed to be the first report of demodicosis in mule deer.     

Gene expression of axon growth promoting factors in the deer antler

The annual regeneration cycle of deer (Cervidae, Artiodactyla) antlers represents a unique model of epimorphic regeneration and rapid growth in adult mammals. Regenerating antlers are innervated by trigeminal sensory axons growing through the velvet, the modified form of skin that envelopes the antler, at elongation velocities that reach one centimetre per day in the common deer (Cervus elaphus). Several axon growth promoters like NT-3, NGF or IGF-1 have been described in the antler. To increase the knowledge on the axon growth environment, we have combined different gene-expression techniques to identify and characterize the expression of promoting molecules not previously described in the antler velvet. Cross-species microarray analyses of deer samples on human arrays allowed us to build up a list of 90 extracellular or membrane molecules involved in axon growth that were potentially being expressed in the antler. Fifteen of these genes were analysed using PCR and sequencing techniques to confirm their expression in the velvet and to compare it with the expression in other antler and skin samples. Expression of 8 axon growth promoters was confirmed in the velvet, 5 of them not previously described in the antler. In conclusion, our work shows that antler velvet provides growing axons with a variety of promoters of axon growth, sharing many of them with deer's normal and pedicle skin.     

Molecular identification of two Sarcocystis species in fallow deer (Dama dama) from Lithuania

Due to the lack of molecular research conducted, little is known about Sarcocystis species diversity in the fallow deer (Dama dama). Until now, Sarcocystis jorrini and Sarcocystis morae were described to form sarcocysts in the muscles of this host. In the present study diaphragm muscle samples of free-ranging fallow deer from Lithuania were investigated for Sarcocystis species. Sarcocysts were detected in 39 out of 48 (81.3%) fallow deer examined. Under a light microscope two types of sarcocysts having hair-like and finger-like protrusions were observed. Based on DNA sequence analysis of cox1 and 18S rDNA, two species, S. morae and Sarcocystis entzerothi were identified. In prior studies, the latter species was only detected in Lithuanian roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and in sika deer (Cervus nippon). The haplotype network of S. morae sequences specified close relationships between haplotypes found in the same country. According to current knowledge, the fallow deer is characterised by low Sarcocystis species richness as compared with other cervid species from Europe.     

Secretory ribonuclease genes and pseudogenes in true ruminants

Mammalian pancreatic ribonucleases (RNase) form a family of extensively studied homologous proteins. Phylogenetic analyses, based on the primary structures of these enzymes, indicated that the presence of three homologous enzymes (pancreatic, seminal and brain ribonucleases) in the bovine species is due to gene duplication events, which occurred during the evolution of ancestral ruminants. In this paper the sequences are reported of the coding regions of the orthologues of the three bovine secretory ribonucleases in hog deer and roe deer, two deer species belonging to two different subfamilies of the family Cervidae. The sequences of the 3′ untranslated regions of the three different secretory RNase genes of these two deer species and giraffe are also presented. Comparison of these and previously determined sequences of ruminant ribonucleases showed that the brain-type enzymes of giraffe and these deer species exhibit variations in their C-terminal extensions. The seminal-type genes of giraffe, hog deer and roe deer show all the features of pseudogenes. Phylogenetic analyses, based on the complete coding regions and parts of the 3′ untranslated regions of the three different secretory ribonuclease genes of ox, sheep, giraffe and the two deer species, show that pancreatic, seminal- and brain-type RNases form three separate groups.     

Genetic variation and structure in Scandinavian red deer (Cervus elaphus): influence of ancestry,past hunting,and restoration management

In the 19^th century, the red deer (Cervus elaphus) population in Sweden experienced a rapid decline in numbers and distribution. A small population was, however, remnant in the southernmost province (Skåne) of the country, presumably corresponding to the nominate form of red deer (Cervus elaphus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758). After management, reintroductions, and supplementary release during the 20^th century the Swedish C. elaphus population recovered. The recovery was partially uncontrolled, and included introductions of C. elaphus of continental origin. In northern central Sweden (Jämtland) the current C. elaphus population may stem from natural colonization from Norway and/or from specimens of Swedish origin that have escaped from enclosures. To evaluate the status of the current, partially separated populations, we investigated variation at microsatellite markers in 157 C. elaphus specimens from ten locations in Sweden and Norway. Analyses suggest that the highest‐likelihood phylogenetic structure among the individuals sampled is described four distinct genetic clusters: (1) animals from the province of Västergötland in south‐western Sweden; (2) deer from the southernmost province of Skåne; (3) deer from the provinces Jämtland, Blekinge, and Västmanland; and (4) Norwegian deer. Cervus elaphus from a captive herd at the Skåne Zoo cluster with deer from Skåne or deer from Västergötland, depending on the method of analysis. A number of populations in Sweden may genetically match the nominate form of red deer (C. e. elaphus). The recently established C. elaphus population in Jämtland seems to stem mainly from escapees from enclosures, with a mixed ancestry from the wild remnant population in Skåne and continental deer, whereas the influx from Norway is minor, if any. Our results show the need for a detailed assessment of genetic differentiation, and emphasize the value of local management plans when planning and managing introductions. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013, 109 , 43–53.     

Artificial Occurrence of the Fallow Deer, Dama dama dama (L., 1758), on the Island of Rhodes (Greece): Insight from mtDNA Analysis

We investigated the origins of the fallow deer (Dama dama dama) of Rhodes by both morphological and molecular means. Our results show that these deer have homogeneous phenotypic patterns. All specimens fell within the common colour coat variety typical of the wild form. The Rhodian deer appear to be rather small, especially when compared with specimens from central and northern Europe. We then sequenced the HVR-I of 13 deer from Rhodes and compared these sequences with other 31 samples obtained from different European and Anatolian populations of fallow deer. Out of 44 sequences, 23 haploypes were found. When compared to the Turkish and Italian populations, the population of Rhodes revealed lower values of within population genetic diversity. The fallow deer from Rhodes are characterized by an 80-bp mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) insertion not found elsewhere. As a consequence, all the deer from Rhodes form a tight cluster, distinct from all other fallow deer populations. This uniqueness makes the conservation and management of the Rhodian population particularly urgent.     

Ehrlichia chaffeensis in archived tissues of a white-tailed deer.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) play an integral role in the natural history of Ehrlichia chaffeensis, the causative agent of human monocytic ehrlichiosis (HME). Paraffinized tissues from a white-tailed deer submitted as a diagnostic case to the Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study (Athens, Georgia, USA) in October of 198.5 and originally described as infected with an unidentified rickettsial organisim were re-examined by specific nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for evidence of infection with Ehrlichia spp. Ehrlichia chaffeensis was identified from the bone marrow and inguinal lymph node of this deer based on amplification of a characteristic sequence-confirmed 16S rDNA fragment from these tissues. Parallel PCR tests on the same samples were negative for 16S rDNA fragments of the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) and for an Ehrlichia-like organism widely distributed in white-tailed deer populations. This report describes detection of E. chaffeensis in archived tissue from a deer collected before the index case of human monocytic ehrlichiosis was established.     

Wasting and neurologic signs in a white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) not associated with abnormal prion protein

A captive adult male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with wasting and neurologic signs similar to chronic wasting disease (CWD) was evaluated by histopathology, histochemistry, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) for disease-associated prion protein (PrP(d)). On histologic examination, the brainstem had areas of vacuolation in neuropil and extensive multifocal mineralization of blood vessels with occasional occlusion of the lumen. Some of the clinical and pathologic features of this case were similar to the CWD of white-tailed deer. However, the tissues were negative for PrP(d) by IHC. Because the lesions were more prominent in the obex region of the brainstem, it is speculated that this would have resulted in clinical signs similar to CWD in white-tailed deer. To our knowledge, neither cerebrovascular mineralization nor clinicopathologic changes resembling CWD have previously been described in white-tailed deer without the presence of PrP(d). Such a case should be considered in a differential diagnosis of CWD of white-tailed deer.     

A climate index and mule deer fawn survival in Montana

A sign of deviation type of index was used to convert standard temperature and precipitation data into a readily used form for the study of deer population dynamics. Statistically significant correlations between the climate index and mule deer fawn survival were demonstrated for four different mule deer populations in Montana. These correlations led to reasonable biological hypotheses delineating the linkage between climate and fawn survival in each of the four areas. The correlations support the frequent observations in the wildlife literature concerning the importance of summer and winter range. They also suggest that human activities may interact with climate in a manner which affects deer fawn survival. In general, in these areas, fawn survival was favored by relatively warm-moist summer, warm-dry winter and cool-dry hunting season weather. The apparent affect of spring weather was variable. Fawn survival in two areas was enhanced by cool-dry summer weather. This reversed response could be the result of human use of the areas, including livestock grazing. It is concluded that this index of climatic fluctuations can be a versatile and useful tool in assessing the impact of climate upon deer populations. In general, weather can be described as a strong biasing factor even when direct effects cannot be consistently demonstrated.     

Experimental adenovirus hemorrhagic disease in white-tailed deer fawns

Infection with a newly described endotheliotropic adenovirus was the cause of a 1993 epizootic reminiscent of hemorrhagic disease in California mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus and O. hemionus hemionus). Pulmonary edema and intestinal luminal hemorrhage, or necrotizing stomatitis associated with systemic or localized vasculitis, respectively, were common lesions seen in animals that died during the epizootic. In order to determine if white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) also are susceptible to infection and fatal disease with the deer adenovirus, eight white-tailed deer fawns (4- to 6-mo-old) were inoculated with purified deer adenovirus. Four were inoculated intravenously and four were inoculated through the mucous membranes. Seven days post-inoculation, one of the fawns inoculated intravenously died. Pulmonary edema and hemorrhagic enteropathy were associated with pulmonary and intestinal vasculitis with systemic multiorgan distribution of endotheliotropic adenovirus as demonstrated by transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Adenovirus was reisolated from lung homogenates of the fawn that died of adenovirus hemorrhagic disease.     

Detection and Avoidance of Predators in White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and Mule Deer (O. hemionus)

In this paper, we investigate the relationship between early detection of predators and predator avoidance in white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) and mule deer ( O. hemionus ), two closely related species that differ in their habitat preferences and in their anti-predator behavior. We used observations of coyotes ( Canis latrans ) hunting deer to test whether the distance at which white-tails and mule deer alerted to coyotes was related to their vulnerability to predation. Coyote encounters with both species were more likely to escalate when deer alerted at shorter distances. However, coyote encounters with mule deer progressed further than encounters with white-tails that alerted at the same distance, and this was not due to species differences in group size or habitat. We then conducted an experiment in which a person approached groups of deer to compare the detection abilities and the form of alert response for white-tails and mule deer, and for age groups within each species. Mule deer alerted to the approacher at longer distances than white-tails, even after controlling for variables that were potentially confounding. Adult females of both species alerted sooner than conspecific juveniles. Mule deer almost always looked directly at the approacher as their initial response, whereas white-tails were more likely to flee or to look in another direction with no indication that they pinpointed the approacher during the trial. Mule deer may have evolved the ability to detect predators earlier than white-tails as an adaptation to their more open habitats, or because they need more time to coordinate subsequent anti-predator defenses.     

Experimental bluetongue disease in white-tailed deer

Nine white-tailed deer and six sheep were experimentally exposed to the California BTV-8 strain of bluetongue virus. The infections were fatal for seven of the nine deer. An additional deer died from exposure to an isolate of bluetongue virus from bighorn sheep. Clinical signs and lesions of bluetongue in deer were described. The incubation period, signs and lesions of bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer appear to be similar. Virus isolations were made from the blood and a variety of tissues of exposed deer and identified as bluetongue virus. Neutralizing antibodies were detected in all of the convalescent sera.     

Granulocytic ehrlichiosis in a roe deer calf in Norway

A case of granulocytic ehrlichiosis is described in a roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) calf from Norway. The calf was heavily infested with Ixodes ricinus and died from Escherichia coli septicemia. Granulocytic Ehrlichia sp. was detected by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from several organs and sequence determination identified a variant of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis (HGE) agent. This is the first report of a possible clinical granulocytic Ehrlichia sp. infection in a roe deer.     

A deer (subfamily Cervinae) genetic linkage map and the evolution of ruminant genomes

Comparative maps between ruminant species and humans are increasingly important tools for the discovery of genes underlying economically important traits. In this article we present a primary linkage map of the deer genome derived from an interspecies hybrid between red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus). The map is approximately 2500 cM long and contains >600 markers including both evolutionary conserved type I markers and highly polymorphic type II markers (microsatellites). Comparative mapping by annotation and sequence similarity (COMPASS) was demonstrated to be a useful tool for mapping bovine and ovine ESTs in deer. Using marker order as a phylogenetic character and comparative map information from human, mouse, deer, cattle, and sheep, we reconstructed the karyotype of the ancestral Pecoran mammal and identified the chromosome rearrangements that have occurred in the sheep, cattle, and deer lineages. The deer map and interspecies hybrid pedigrees described here are a valuable resource for (1) predicting the location of orthologs to human genes in ruminants, (2) mapping QTL in farmed and wild deer populations, and (3) ruminant phylogenetic studies.     

Basic hematological values in some wild ruminants in captivity

Analyses of hematological parameters were carried out on eight axis deer (Cervus axis), 12 fallow deer (Cervus dama), 16 red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus), three sambar (Cervus unicolor), nine Père David deer (Elaphurus davidianus), 20 European bison (Bison bonasus), seven nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), eight mouflon (Ovis musimon), four white-bearded gnu (Connochaetes taurinus) and six barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia). The following parameters were determined: packed cell volume, hemoglobin concentration, red blood cell number, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, leukocyte number and differential leukocyte count. Some degree of interspecific variability was found in the artiodactyls for these hematological parameters. An inverse relationship between mean corpuscular volume and red blood cell number is described, and specific values for these parameters are given for the four subfamilies.     

A phylogenetic comparison of red deer and wapiti using mitochondrial DNA

A phylogeny was constructed for red deer/wapiti (Cervus elaphus) subspecies using sequence data from the control region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The tree was rooted using Cervus nippon (sika deer), Cervus albirostris (Thorold's white-lipped deer), and several Odocoileinae species. A division between the mtDNA haplotypes of red deer (European) and wapiti (Asian/North American) corresponds to subspecies found on opposite sides of the Himalayan Mountains and Gobi, which suggests wapiti should be reconsidered for the status of C. canadensis. Using parsimony and distance analysis, red deer and wapiti are derived from a single recent common ancestor, which is consistent with current taxonomy that recognizes the subspecies of Cervus elaphus as monophyletic group. However, maximum-likelihood analysis using weighted transitional substitutions caused red deer to form a sister group to sika deer (Cervus nippon) and wapiti. A phenetic comparison revealed wapiti also share more nucleotide similarities with sika deer, although approximately 5% sequence divergence separates wapiti, sika, and red deer. Phylogenetic evidence from the cytochrome b sequences corroborated observations from the control region. Observations from this study suggest that the species status of wapiti should be reinstated.     

Identification of a novel Mannheimia granulomatis lineage from lesions in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)

Eight atypical Mannheimia isolates were isolated from lesions in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Traditional classification based on morphologic and physiologic traits showed that they belong to a distinct biogroup (taxon) within genus Mannheimia. Extensive phenotypic characterization suggested that the isolates should be classified as M. granulomatis, although the presence of distinct traits justified their classification into a separate biogroup within this species. Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA sequences from two roe deer isolates and 41 other Mannheimia strains supported that the roe deer isolates form a monophyletic group within M. granulomatis. The lktA genotype was present in all roe deer isolates based on Southern blot analysis, whereas the corresponding beta-hemolytic phenotype was absent in one of these isolates.     

Bluetongue virus: (1) in pregnant white-tailed deer (2) a plaque reduction neutralization test

Six white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were infected with bluetongue virus (BTs, vaccinal strain) approximately one-third of the way through their gestation period. One deer died of bluetongue 21 days after inoculation. Of the five surviving the infection, one had two mummified fetuses, and the others no fetuses upon euthanasia two weeks after term. Fetuses were present in two control deer and in the one which died of bluetongue. A plaque reduction neutralization test for bluetongue virus was developed and described for the first time and its sensitivity illustrated by high post inoculation titers which ranged from 1:3200 to greater than 1:16000.     

Failure of fallow deer (Dama dama) to develop chronic wasting disease when exposed to a contaminated environment and infected mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus)

We monitored a herd of fallow deer (Dama dama) for evidence of prion infection for 7 yr by periodic postmortem examination of animals from the herd. The fallow deer were exposed to the chronic wasting disease (CWD) agent from mule deer by living in a paddock considered contaminated with infectivity from its history of housing CWD infected deer and, after the first year of the study, by comingling with infected mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). At least 8 of 12 mule deer serving as sentinels for prion transmission and 25 additional mule deer serving as sources of infectivity developed clinical CWD or were otherwise confirmed to be infected with CWD via lymphoid tissue immunohistochemistry (IHC). In contrast, none of the 41 exposed fallow deer showed clinical signs suggestive of CWD, IHC staining of disease-associated prion in lymphoid or brain tissues, or evidence of spongiform degeneration in sections of brain stem at the level of the obex when sampled 18 mo to 7 yr after entering the mule deer paddock. The absence of clinical disease and negative IHC results in fallow deer housed in the same contaminated paddock for up to 7 yr and almost continuously exposed to CWD-infected mule deer for up to 6 yr suggests a species barrier or other form of resistance preventing fallow deer infection by the CWD agent or delaying progression of the disease in this species.