Interleukin‐37 improves T‐cell‐mediated immunity and chimeric antigen receptor T‐cell therapy in aged backgrounds

Aging‐associated declines in innate and adaptive immune responses are well documented and pose a risk for the growing aging population, which is predicted to comprise greater than 40 percent of the world''s population by 2050. Efforts have been made to improve immunity in aged populations; however, safe and effective protocols to accomplish this goal have not been universally established. Aging‐associated chronic inflammation is postulated to compromise immunity in aged mice and humans. Interleukin‐37 (IL‐37) is a potent anti‐inflammatory cytokine, and we present data demonstrating that IL‐37 gene expression levels in human monocytes significantly decline with age. Furthermore, we demonstrate that transgenic expression of interleukin‐37 (IL‐37) in aged mice reduces or prevents aging‐associated chronic inflammation, splenomegaly, and accumulation of myeloid cells (macrophages and dendritic cells) in the bone marrow and spleen. Additionally, we show that IL‐37 expression decreases the surface expression of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD‐1) and augments cytokine production from aged T‐cells. Improved T‐cell function coincided with a youthful restoration of Pdcd1, Lat, and Stat4 gene expression levels in CD4⁺ T‐cells and Lat in CD8⁺ T‐cells when aged mice were treated with recombinant IL‐37 (rIL‐37) but not control immunoglobin (Control Ig). Importantly, IL‐37‐mediated rejuvenation of aged endogenous T‐cells was also observed in aged chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T‐cells, where improved function significantly extended the survival of mice transplanted with leukemia cells. Collectively, these data demonstrate the potency of IL‐37 in boosting the function of aged T‐cells and highlight its therapeutic potential to overcome aging‐associated immunosenescence.     

gB co‐immunization with GP96 enhances pulmonary‐resident CD8 T cells and exerts a long‐term defence against MCMV pneumonitis

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection in the respiratory tract leads to pneumonitis in immunocompromised hosts without available vaccine. Considering cytomegalovirus (CMV) mainly invades through the respiratory tract, CMV‐specific pulmonary mucosal vaccine development that provides a long‐lasting protection against CMV challenge gains our attention. In this study, N‐terminal domain of GP96 (GP96‐NT) was used as a mucosal adjuvant to enhance the induction of pulmonary‐resident CD8 T cells elicited by MCMV glycoprotein B (gB) vaccine. Mice were intranasally co‐immunized with 50 μg pgB and equal amount of pGP96‐NT vaccine 4 times at 2‐week intervals, and then i.n. challenged with MCMV at 16 weeks after the last immunization. Compared with pgB immunization alone, co‐immunization with pgB/pGP96‐NT enhanced a long‐lasting protection against MCMV pneumonitis by significantly improved pneumonitis pathology, enhanced bodyweight, reduced viral burdens and increased survival rate. Moreover, the increased CD8 T cells were observed in lung but not spleen from pgB/pGP96‐NT co‐immunized mice. The increments of pulmonary CD8 T cells might be mainly due to non‐circulating pulmonary‐resident CD8 T‐cell subset expansion but not circulating CD8 T‐cell populations that home to inflammation site upon MCMV challenge. Finally, the deterioration of MCMV pneumonitis by depletion of pulmonary site‐specific CD8 T cells in mice that were pgB/pGP96‐NT co‐immunization might be a clue to interpret the non‐circulating pulmonary‐resident CD8 T subset expansion. These data might uncover a promising long‐lasting prophylactic vaccine strategy against MCMV‐induced pneumonitis.     

Cryptic association of B7‐2 molecules and its implication for clustering

T‐cell co‐stimulation through CD28/CTLA4:B7‐1/B7‐2 axis is one of the extensively studied pathways that resulted in the discovery of several FDA‐approved drugs for autoimmunity and cancer. However, many aspects of the signaling mechanism remain elusive, including oligomeric association and clustering of B7‐2 on the cell surface. Here, we describe the structure of the IgV domain of B7‐2 and its cryptic association into 1D arrays that appear to represent the pre‐signaling state of B7‐2 on the cell membrane. Super‐resolution microscopy experiments on heterologous cells expressing B7‐2 and B7‐1 suggest, B7‐2 form relatively elongated and larger clusters compared to B7‐1. The sequence and structural comparison of other B7 family members, B7‐1:CTLA4 and B7‐2:CTLA‐4 complex structures, support our view that the observed B7‐2 1D zipper array is physiologically important. This observed 1D zipper‐like array also provides an explanation for its clustering, and upright orientation on the cell surface, and avoidance of spurious signaling.     

Enhanced effect of recombinant adenoviruses co‐expression of ING4 and OSM on anti‐tumour activity of laryngeal cancer

The inhibitor of growth family member 4 (ING4) is one of the ING family genes, serves as a repressor of angiogenesis or tumour growth and suppresses loss of contact inhibition. Oncostatin M (OSM) is a multifunctional cytokine that belongs to the interleukin (IL)‐6 subfamily with several biological activities. However, the role of recombinant adenoviruses co‐expressing ING4 and OSM (Ad‐ING4‐OSM) in anti‐tumour activity of laryngeal cancer has not yet been identified. Recombinant Ad‐ING4‐OSM was used to evaluate their combined effect on enhanced anti‐tumour activity in Hep‐2 cells of laryngeal cancer in vivo. Moreover, in vitro function assays of co‐expression of Ad‐ING4‐OSM were performed to explore impact of co‐expression of Ad‐ING4‐OSM on biological phenotype of laryngeal cancer cell line, that is Hep‐2 cells. In vitro, Ad‐ING4‐OSM significantly inhibited the growth, enhanced apoptosis, altered cell cycle with G1 and G2/M phase arrest, and upregulated the expression of P21, P27, P53 and downregulated survivin in laryngeal cancer Hep‐2 cells. Furthermore, in vivo functional experiments of co‐expressing of Ad‐ING4‐OSM demonstrated that solid tumours in the nude mouse model were significantly suppressed, and the co‐expressing Ad‐ING4‐OSM showed a significant upregulation expression of P21, P53, Bax and Caspase‐3 and a downregulation of Cox‐2, Bcl‐2 and CD34. This study for the first time demonstrated the clinical value and the role of co‐expressing Ad‐ING4‐OSM in biological function of laryngeal cancer. This work suggested that co‐expressing Ad‐ING4‐OSM might serve as a potential therapeutic target for laryngeal cancer patients.     

Epac‐2 ameliorates spontaneous colitis in Il‐10 −/− mice by protecting the intestinal barrier and suppressing NF‐κB/MAPK signalling

Intestinal barrier dysfunction and intestinal inflammation interact in the progression of Crohn''s disease (CD). A recent study indicated that Epac‐2 protected the intestinal barrier and had anti‐inflammatory effects. The present study examined the function of Epac‐2 in CD‐like colitis. Interleukin‐10 gene knockout (Il‐10 ^−/−) mice exhibit significant spontaneous enteritis and were used as the CD model. These mice were treated with Epac‐2 agonists (Me‐cAMP) or Epac‐2 antagonists (HJC‐0350) or were fed normally (control), and colitis and intestinal barrier structure and function were compared. A Caco‐2 and RAW 264.7 cell co‐culture system were used to analyse the effects of Epac‐2 on the cross‐talk between intestinal epithelial cells and inflammatory cells. Epac‐2 activation significantly ameliorated colitis in mice, which was indicated by reductions in the colitis inflammation score, the expression of inflammatory factors and intestinal permeability. Epac‐2 activation also decreased Caco‐2 cell permeability in an LPS‐induced cell co‐culture system. Epac‐2 activation significantly suppressed nuclear factor (NF)‐κB/mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) signalling in vivo and in vitro. Epac‐2 may be a therapeutic target for CD based on its anti‐inflammatory functions and protective effects on the intestinal barrier.     

Dynamics of NK,CD8 and Tfh cell mediated the production of cytokines and antiviral antibodies in Chinese patients with moderate COVID‐19

Recent studies have demonstrated a marked decrease in peripheral lymphocyte levels in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2). Few studies have focused on the changes of NK, T‐ and B‐cell subsets, inflammatory cytokines and virus‐specific antibodies in patients with moderate COVID‐19. A total of 11 RT‐PCR‐confirmed convalescent patients with COVID‐19 and 11 patients with non‐SARS‐CoV‐2 pneumonia (control patients) were enrolled in this study. NK, CD8⁺ T, CD4⁺ T, Tfh‐like and B‐cell subsets were analysed using flow cytometry. Cytokines and SARS‐CoV‐2‐specific antibodies were analysed using an electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. NK cell counts were significantly higher in patients with COVID‐19 than in control patients (P = 0.017). Effector memory CD8⁺ T‐cell counts significantly increased in patients with COVID‐19 during a convalescent period of 1 week (P = 0.041). TIM‐3⁺ Tfh‐like cell and CD226⁺ Tfh‐like cell counts significantly increased (P = 0.027) and decreased (P = 0.022), respectively, during the same period. Moreover, ICOS⁺ Tfh‐like cell counts tended to decrease (P = 0.074). No abnormal increase in cytokine levels was observed. The high expression of NK cells is important in innate immune response against SARS‐CoV‐2. The increase in effector memory CD8⁺ T‐cell counts, the up‐regulation of inhibitory molecules and the down‐regulation of active molecules on CD4⁺ T cells and Tfh‐like cells in patients with COVID‐19 would benefit the maintenance of balanced cellular and humoural immune responses, may prevent the development of severe cases and contribute to the recovery of patients with COVID‐19.     

Regulatory KIR+RA+ T cells accumulate with age and are highly activated during viral respiratory disease

Severe respiratory viral infectious diseases such as influenza and COVID‐19 especially affect the older population. This is partly ascribed to diminished CD8⁺ T‐cell responses a result of aging. The phenotypical diversity of the CD8⁺ T‐cell population has made it difficult to identify the impact of aging on CD8⁺ T‐cell subsets associated with diminished CD8⁺ T‐cell responses. Here we identify a novel human CD8⁺ T‐cell subset characterized by expression of Killer‐cell Immunoglobulin‐like Receptors (KIR⁺) and CD45RA (RA⁺). These KIR⁺RA⁺ T cells accumulated with age in the blood of healthy individuals (20–82 years of age, n = 50), expressed high levels of aging‐related markers of T‐cell regulation, and were functionally capable of suppressing proliferation of other CD8⁺ T cells. Moreover, KIR⁺RA⁺ T cells were a major T‐cell subset becoming activated in older adults suffering from an acute respiratory viral infection (n = 36), including coronavirus and influenza virus infection. In addition, older adults with influenza A infection showed that higher activation status of their KIR⁺RA⁺ T cells associated with longer duration of respiratory symptoms. Together, our data indicate that KIR⁺RA⁺ T cells are a unique human T‐cell subset with regulatory properties that may explain susceptibility to viral respiratory disease at old age.     

HIV‐1 infection of CD4 T cells impairs antigen‐specific B cell function

Failures to produce neutralizing antibodies upon HIV‐1 infection result in part from B‐cell dysfunction due to unspecific B‐cell activation. How HIV‐1 affects antigen‐specific B‐cell functions remains elusive. Using an adoptive transfer mouse model and ex vivo HIV infection of human tonsil tissue, we found that expression of the HIV‐1 pathogenesis factor NEF in CD4 T cells undermines their helper function and impairs cognate B‐cell functions including mounting of efficient specific IgG responses. NEF interfered with T cell help via a specific protein interaction motif that prevents polarized cytokine secretion at the T‐cell–B‐cell immune synapse. This interference reduced B‐cell activation and proliferation and thus disrupted germinal center formation and affinity maturation. These results identify NEF as a key component for HIV‐mediated dysfunction of antigen‐specific B cells. Therapeutic targeting of the identified molecular surface in NEF will facilitate host control of HIV infection.     

4-1BB and OX40 act independently to facilitate robust CD8 and CD4 recall responses

Mice deficient in OX40 or 4-1BB costimulatory pathways show defects in T cell recall responses, with predominant effects on CD4 vs CD8 T cells, respectively. However, OX40L can also stimulate CD8 T cells and 4-1BBL can influence CD4 T cells, raising the possibility of redundancy between the two TNFR family costimulators. To test this possibility, we generated mice deficient in both 4-1BBL and OX40L. In an adoptive transfer model, CD4 T cells expressed 4-1BB and OX40 sequentially in response to immunization, with little or no overlap in the timing of their expression. Under the same conditions, CD8 T cells expressed 4-1BB, but no detectable OX40. Thus, in vivo expression of 4-1BB and OX40 can be temporally and spatially segregated. In the absence of OX40L, there were decreased CD4 T cells late in the primary response and no detectable secondary expansion of adoptively transferred CD4 T cells under conditions in which primary expansion was unaffected. The 4-1BBL had a minor effect on the primary response of CD4 T cells in this model, but showed larger effects on the secondary response, although 4-1BBL(-/-) mice show less impairment in CD4 secondary responses than OX40L(-/-) mice. The 4-1BBL(-/-) and double knockout mice were similarly impaired in the CD8 T cell response, whereas OX40L(-/-) and double knockout mice were similarly impaired in the CD4 T cell response to both protein Ag and influenza virus. Thus, 4-1BB and OX40 act independently and nonredundantly to facilitate robust CD4 and CD8 recall responses.     

During viral infection of the respiratory tract, CD27, 4-1BB, and OX40 collectively determine formation of CD8+ memory T cells and their capacity for secondary expansion

Independent studies have shown that CD27, 4-1BB, and OX40 can all promote survival of activated CD8+ T cells. We have therefore compared their impact on CD8+ memory T cell formation and responsiveness within one, physiologically relevant model system. Recombinant mice, selectively lacking input of one or two receptors, were challenged intranasally with influenza virus, and the immunodominant virus-specific CD8+ T cell response was quantified at priming and effector sites. Upon primary infection, CD27 and (to a lesser extent) 4-1BB made nonredundant contributions to accumulation of CD8+ virus-specific T cells in draining lymph nodes and lung, while OX40 had no effect. Interestingly though, in the memory response, accumulation of virus-specific CD8+ T cells in spleen and lung critically depended on all three receptor systems. This was explained by two observations: 1) CD27, 4-1BB, and OX40 were collectively responsible for generation of the same memory CD8+ T cell pool; 2) CD27, 4-1BB, and OX40 collectively determined the extent of secondary expansion, as shown by adoptive transfers with standardized numbers of memory cells. Surprisingly, wild-type CD8+ memory T cells expanded normally in primed OX40 ligand- or 4-1BB ligand-deficient mice. However, when wild-type memory cells were generated in OX40 ligand- or 4-1BB ligand-deficient mice, their secondary expansion was impaired. This provides the novel concept that stimulation of CD8+ T cells by OX40 and 4-1BB ligand during priming imprints into them the capacity for secondary expansion. Our data argue that ligand on dendritic cells and/or B cells may be critical for this.     

Gingival mesenchymal stem cell‐derived exosomes are immunosuppressive in preventing collagen‐induced arthritis

Due to the unsatisfied effects of clinical drugs used in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), investigators shifted their focus on the biotherapy. Although human gingival mesenchymal stem cells (GMSC) have the potential to be used in treating RA, GMSC‐based therapy has some inevitable side effects such as immunogenicity and tumorigenicity. As one of the most important paracrine mediators, GMSC‐derived exosomes (GMSC‐Exo) exhibit therapeutic effects via immunomodulation in a variety of disease models, bypassing potential shortcomings of the direct use of MSCs. Furthermore, exosomes are not sensitive to freezing and thawing, and can be readily available for use. GMSC‐Exo has been reported to promote tissue regeneration and wound healing, but have not been reported to be effective against autoimmune diseases. We herein compare the immunomodulatory functions of GMSC‐Exo and GMSC in collagen‐induced arthritis (CIA) model and in vitro CD4⁺ T‐cell co‐culture model. The results show that GMSC‐Exo has the same or stronger effects compared with GMSC in inhibiting IL‐17A and promoting IL‐10, reducing incidences and bone erosion of arthritis, via inhibiting IL‐17RA‐Act1‐TRAF6‐NF‐κB signal pathway. Our results suggest that GMSC‐Exo has many advantages in treating CIA, and may offer a promising new cell‐free therapy strategy for RA and other autoimmune diseases.     

Cinnamic Aldehyde,the main monomer component of Cinnamon,exhibits anti‐inflammatory property in OA synovial fibroblasts via TLR4/MyD88 pathway

Cinnamon is a wildly used traditional Chinese herbal medicine for osteoarthritis (OA) treatment, but the underlying mechanism remains ambiguous. The purpose of this study is to explore the mechanism of cinnamic aldehyde (CA), a bioactive substance extracted from Cinnamon, on synovial inflammation in OA. A total of 144 CA‐OA co‐targeted genes were identified by detect databases (PubChem, HIT, TCMSP, TTD, DrugBank and GeneCards). The results of GO enrichment analysis indicated that these co‐targeted genes have participated in many biological processes including ‘inflammatory response’, ‘cellular response to lipopolysaccharide’, ‘response to drug’, ‘immune response’, ‘lipopolysaccharide‐mediated signalling pathway’, etc. KEGG pathway analysis showed these co‐targeted genes were mainly enriched in ‘Toll‐like receptor signalling pathway’, ‘TNF signalling pathway’, ‘NF‐kappa B signalling pathway’, etc. Molecular docking demonstrated that CA could successfully bind to TLR2 and TLR4. The results of in vitro experiments showed no potential toxicity of 10, 20 and 50 μM/L CA on human OA FLS, and CA can significantly inhibit the inflammation in LPS‐induced human FLS. Further experimental mechanism evidence confirmed CA can inhibited the inflammation in LPS‐induced human OA FLS via blocking the TLR4/MyD88 signalling pathway. Our results demonstrated that CA exhibited strong anti‐inflammation effect in OA FLS through blocking the activation of TLR4/MyD88 signalling pathway, suggesting its potential as a hopeful candidate for the development of novel agents for the treatment of OA.     

Role of miR‐218‐GREM1 axis in epithelial‐mesenchymal transition of oral squamous cell carcinoma: An in vivo and vitro study based on microarray data

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a prevalent cancer that develops in the head and neck area and has high annual mortality despite optimal treatment. microRNA‐218 (miR‐218) is a tumour inhibiting non‐coding RNA that has been reported to suppress the cell proliferation and invasion in various cancers. Thus, our study aims to determine the mechanism underlying the inhibitory role of miR‐218 in OSCC. We conducted a bioinformatics analysis to screen differentially expressed genes in OSCC and their potential upstream miRNAs. After collection of surgical OSCC tissues, we detected GREM1 expression by immunohistochemistry, RT‐qPCR and Western blot analysis, and miR‐218 expression by RT‐qPCR. The target relationship between miR‐218 and GREM1 was assessed by dual‐luciferase reporter gene assay. After loss‐ and gain‐of‐function experiments, OSCC cell proliferation, migration and invasion were determined by MTT assay, scratch test and Transwell assay, respectively. Expression of TGF‐β1, Smad4, p21, E‐cadherin, Vimentin and Snail was measured by RT‐qPCR and Western blot analysis. Finally, effects of miR‐218 and GREM1 on tumour formation and liver metastasis were evaluated in xenograft tumour‐bearing nude mice. GREM1 was up‐regulated, and miR‐218 was down‐regulated in OSCC tissues, and GREM1 was confirmed to be the target gene of miR‐218. Furthermore, after up‐regulating miR‐218 or silencing GREM1, OSCC cell proliferation, migration and invasion were reduced. In addition, expression of TGF‐β signalling pathway‐related genes was diminished by overexpressing miR‐218 or down‐regulating GREM1. Finally, up‐regulated miR‐218 or down‐regulated GREM1 reduced tumour growth and liver metastasis in vivo. Taken together, our findings suggest that the overexpression of miR‐218 may inhibit OSCC progression by inactivating the GREM1‐dependent TGF‐β signalling pathway.     

DEK‐targeting aptamer DTA‐64 attenuates bronchial EMT‐mediated airway remodelling by suppressing TGF‐β1/Smad,MAPK and PI3K signalling pathway in asthma

This study is to investigate the inhibitory effects and mechanisms of DEK‐targeting aptamer (DTA‐64) on epithelial mesenchymaltransition (EMT)‐mediated airway remodelling in mice and human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS‐2B. In the ovalbumin (OVA)‐induced asthmatic mice, DTA‐64 significantly reduced the infiltration of eosinophils and neutrophils in lung tissue, attenuated the airway resistance and the proliferation of goblet cells. In addition, DTA‐64 reduced collagen deposition, transforming growth factor 1 (TGF‐β1) level in BALF and IgE levels in serum, balanced Th1/Th2/Th17 ratio, and decreased mesenchymal proteins (vimentin and α‐SMA), as well as weekend matrix metalloproteinases (MMP‐2 and MMP‐9) and NF‐κB p65 activity. In the in vitro experiments, we used TGF‐β1 to induce EMT in the human epithelial cell line BEAS‐2B. DEK overexpression (ovDEK) or silencing (shDEK) up‐regulated or down‐regulated TGF‐β1 expression, respectively, on the contrary, TGF‐β1 exposure had no effect on DEK expression. Furthermore, ovDEK and TGF‐β1 synergistically promoted EMT, whereas shDEK significantly reduced mesenchymal markers and increased epithelial markers, thus inhibiting EMT. Additionally, shDEK inhibited key proteins in TGF‐β1‐mediated signalling pathways, including Smad2/3, Smad4, p38 MAPK, ERK1/2, JNK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR. In conclusion, the effects of DTA‐64 against EMT of asthmatic mice and BEAS‐2B might partially be achieved through suppressing TGF‐β1/Smad, MAPK and PI3K signalling pathways. DTA‐64 may be a new therapeutic option for the management of airway remodelling in asthma patients.     

Effect of Crohn's disease mesenteric mesenchymal stem cells and their extracellular vesicles on T‐cell immunosuppressive capacity

Crohn''s disease (CD) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal intestinal tract and has characteristic hypertrophic adipose changes observed in the mesentery. To better understand the role of the mesentery in the pathophysiology of Crohn''s disease (CD), we evaluated the immunomodulatory potential of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their secreted extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from Crohn''s patients. MSCs and EVs were isolated from the mesentery and subcutaneous tissues of CD patients and healthy individuals subcutaneous tissues, and were analysed for differentiation, cytokine expression, self‐renewal and proliferation. The varying capacity of these tissue‐derived MSCs and EVs to attenuate T‐cell activation was measured in in vitro and an in vivo murine model. RNA sequencing of inflamed Crohn''s disease mesentery tissue revealed an enrichment of T‐cell activation compared to non‐inflamed subcutaneous tissue. MSCs and MSC‐derived EVs isolated from Crohn''s mesentery lose their ability to attenuate DSS‐induced colitis compared to subcutaneous tissue‐derived cell or EV therapy. We found that treatment with subcutaneous isolated MSCs and their EV product compared to Crohn''s mesentery MSCs or EVs, the inhibition of T‐cell proliferation and IFN‐γ, IL‐17a production increased, suggesting a non‐inflamed microenvironment allows for T‐cell inhibition by MSCs/EVs. Our results demonstrate that Crohn''s patient‐derived diseased mesentery tissue MSCs lose their immunosuppressive capacity in the treatment of colitis by distinct regulation of pathogenic T‐cell responses and/or T‐cell infiltration into the colon.     

4-1BB ligand induces cell division, sustains survival, and enhances effector function of CD4 and CD8 T cells with similar efficacy

A costimulatory member of the TNFR family, 4-1BB, is expressed on activated T cells. Although some reports have suggested that 4-1BB is primarily involved in CD8 T cell activation, in this report we demonstrate that both CD4 and CD8 T cells respond to 4-1BB ligand (4-1BBL) with similar efficacy. CD4 and CD8 TCR transgenic T cells up-regulate 4-1BB, OX40, and CD27 and respond to 4-1BBL-mediated costimulation during a primary response to peptide Ag. 4-1BBL enhanced proliferation, cytokine production, and CTL effector function of TCR transgenic T cells. To compare CD4 vs CD8 responses to 4-1BBL under similar conditions of antigenic stimulation, we performed MLRs with purified CD4 or CD8 responders from CD28(+/+) and CD28(-/-) mice. We found that CD8 T cells produced IL-2 and IFN-gamma in a 4-1BBL-dependent manner, whereas under the same conditions the CD4 T cells produced IL-2 and IL-4. 4-1BBL promoted survival of CD4 and CD8 T cells, particularly at late stages of the MLR. CD4 and CD8 T cells both responded to anti-CD3 plus s4-1BBL with a similar cytokine profile as observed in the MLR. CD4 and CD8 T cells exhibited enhanced proliferation and earlier cell division when stimulated with anti-CD3 plus anti-CD28 compared with anti-CD3 plus 4-1BBL, and both subsets responded comparably to anti-CD3 plus 4-1BBL. These data support the idea that CD28 plays a primary role in initial T cell expansion, whereas 4-1BB/4-1BBL sustains both CD4 and CD8 T cell responses, as well as enhances cell division and T cell effector function.     

TNF‐α induces up‐regulation of MicroRNA‐27a via the P38 signalling pathway,which inhibits intervertebral disc degeneration by targeting FSTL1

The mechanism of intervertebral disc degeneration is still unclear, and there are no effective therapeutic strategies for treating this condition. miRNAs are naturally occurring macromolecules in the human body and have many biological functions. Therefore, we hope to elucidate whether miRNAs are associated with intervertebral disc degeneration and the underlying mechanisms involved. In our study, differentially expressed miRNAs were predicted by the GEO database and then confirmed by qPCR and in situ hybridization. Apoptosis of nucleus pulposus cells was detected by flow cytometry and Bcl2, Bax and caspase 3. Deposition of extracellular matrix was assessed by Alcian blue staining, and the expression of COX2 and MMP13 was detected by immunofluorescence, Western blot and qPCR. Moreover, qPCR was used to detect the expression of miR27a and its precursors. The results showed that miR27a was rarely expressed in healthy intervertebral discs but showed increased expression in degenerated intervertebral discs. Ectopic miR27a expression inhibited apoptosis, suppressed the inflammatory response and attenuated the catabolism of the extracellular matrix by targeting FSTL1. Furthermore, it seems that the expression of miR27a was up‐regulated by TNF‐α via the P38 signalling pathway. So we conclude that TNF‐α and FSTL1 engage in a positive feedback loop to promote intervertebral disc degeneration. At the same time, miR27a is up‐regulated by TNF‐α via the P38 signalling pathway, which ameliorates inflammation, apoptosis and matrix degradation by targeting FSTL1. Thus, this negative feedback mechanism might contribute to the maintenance of a low degeneration load and would be beneficial to maintain a persistent chronic disc degeneration.