Composition,Microdistribution and Food of the Macroinvertebrate Fauna Inhabiting Wood in Low‐Order Mountain Streams in Central Europe

The macroinvertebrate community inhabiting woody debris in low‐order mountain streams was investigated using hand collections and emergence traps. With respect to dry mass, Amphipoda, Plecoptera and Diptera are the most important taxa. From the gut content analyses it was found that the microhabitat is colonized by xylophagous species as well as taxa of other feeding types. Regarding the whole community, there is no correlation between the abundance of specimens and density of wood, tree species, bark cover, consistency class, and surface structure. However, single species do show preferences; surface structure is the most important factor determining community composition.     

Per arborem ad astra: morphological adaptations to exploiting the woody habitat in the early evolution of Hymenoptera

We survey morphological features of larval and adult wasps that undergo their entire larval development inside wood and interpret them in view of the lifestyle. The evolution of some of the characters is explored by mapping them on a recently published phylogeny of Hymenoptera. Based on this phylogeny, it is reasonable to assume that wood-living wasps evolved from a xylophagous/mycetophagous stage as displayed by woodwasps to a carnivorous/parasitoid lifestyle, preying on woodboring insect larvae. The latter mode of life is probably ancestral to the Apocrita which comprise the majority of the order; they share this lifestyle with their sister group, the Orussidae. However, most apocritan wasps have radiated into other habitats, the Orussidae and Stephanidae apparently being the only taxa that have retained the ancestral lifestyle of carnivorous wasps. Other apocritan lineages associated with wood (e.g., Aulacidae, Megalyridae, basal Cynipoidea and some Ichneumonoidea and Chalcidoidea) possibly entered this habitat secondarily and independently acquired morphological traits associated with it. The woody habitat was occupied by Hymenoptera during a crucial stage in their evolution where the transition from the phytophagous to carnivorous lifestyle took place. The anatomy of both larva and adults was extensively transformed in the process.     

Ambrosiodmus rubricollis (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera; Curculionidae; Scolytinae) associated with young Tasmanian blue gum trees

Eucalypts are among the most widely planted forest trees in the world, and outside their native Australian range, the main arthropod pests are sap‐sucking insects, defoliators, gall‐making insects and xylophagous beetles. We report on a new association between a polyphagous wood‐boring beetle and Tasmanian blue gum (Eucalyptus globulus Labill.) in Central Portugal. Unidentified wood‐boring insects were found attacking two three‐year‐old E. globulus trees showing signs of decline among otherwise healthy trees in a commercial plantation, in June 2018. Declining trees presented dead twigs and branches, and recently developed epicormic sprouts evident on the trunks. Insects emerging from logs were identified as Ambrosiodmus rubricollis (Eichhoff), a species native to eastern and southern Asia, with the taxonomic identification validated by molecular analysis. To our knowledge, this is the first record of A. rubricollis associated with a eucalypt species worldwide. It is not clear whether the beetles played any significant role on the decline of the trees, but Ambrosiodmus may be potential pests for several tree and shrub species in Europe, as these beetles can transport pathogenic fungi.     

Seagrasses,seaweeds and plant debris: An extraordinary reservoir of fungal diversity in the Mediterranean Sea

This review gathers data derived from many research efforts on marine fungi associated with plant-origin substrates in the Mediterranean Sea. Overall, the review draws up a list of 378 taxa associated with seagrasses, seaweeds and wood.For each of the three substrates, on average, 92.7% of the taxa belonged to the phylum Ascomycota. Basidiomycota were better represented in seagrasses (9.8%) than in seaweeds (4.9%) and wood (1.2%). Mucoromycota and Mortirellomycota were scarce, while Chytridiomycota was detected only in association with phanerogames (3.7%). Dothideomycetes and Sordariomycetes were the dominant classes, while the orders Pleosporales and Hypocreales were significantly represented in the three sububstrates (42, 37, 10 taxa-30, 40, 16 taxa). Seagrasses with 210 associated taxa were the substrates with the richest fungal communities, immediately followed by seaweeds (180 taxa) and finally by wood (78 taxa). Out of the total, only 12 taxa were shared by the three varieties of substrates, including species that were widespread in marine environments. However, many algal species and seagrasses inhabiting the Mediterranean Sea remain unexplored. This gap indicates the need to apply more extensive surveys to explain the huge fungal biodiversity herein hosted, and increase the chances of describing novel fungal lineages.     

Lichens on dead wood: species‐substrate relationships in the epiphytic lichen floras of the Pacific Northwest and Fennoscandia

Dead wood is an important habitat feature for lichens in forest ecosystems, but little is known about how many and which lichens are dependent on dead wood. We reviewed substrate use by epiphytic lichens in the combined floras of Fennoscandia and the Pacific Northwest of North America based on literature and herbarium data and analyzed substrate affinity relative to life form, reproductive mode and major phylogenetic group within the floras. A total of 550 (43%) of the 1271 epiphytic species in the combined floras use wood, and 132 species (10%) are obligately associated with dead wood in one or both regions. Obligate and facultative wood‐dwelling guilds in the two floras were strongly similar in terms of internal guild structure in each region, but differ somewhat in species composition, while the bark‐dwelling guild differs strongly in both. Most obligate dead wood users are sexually reproducing crustose lichens. The largest numbers of species are associated with forest structural features such as logs and snags that have been greatly reduced by forest practices. Conservation of lichens inhabiting wood requires greater attention to crustose lichen species and the development of conservation strategies that look beyond numbers and volumes of dead wood and consider biologically meaningful dead wood structure types.     

Comparative population genetic study of two oligophagous insects associated with the same hosts

A parallel study of the genetic structure of two oligophagous species associated with the same hosts was conducted to determine the main factors shaping the distribution of genetic diversity. The bark beetle Tomicus piniperda and the pine processionary moth (PPM) Thaumetopoea pityocampa are both associated with the genus Pinus and belong to different guilds (xylophagous vs defoliating species). The PPM is an ectophagous species that feeds on the needles of living trees, whereas T. piniperda is endophagous and bores galleries in the inner bark of weakened trees. Both species were sampled in the main regions of France, and their genetic structure was assessed after genotyping with five microsatellite markers. Populations of the PPM were significantly structured. A pattern of isolation by distance was found when distances were calculated as bypassing the Massif Central, whereas no such pattern could be found with raw geographic distances. On the contrary, most populations of T. piniperda were not differentiated. No effect of host species could be detected in either of the two species. We conclude that the two taxa have contrasting effective dispersal rates per generation, and we hypothesize that this reflects the different selection pressures acting on individual fitness via different strategies of host use.     

Description of the basic features of parent‐offspring stomodeal trophallaxis in the subsocial wood‐feeding cockroach Salganea esakii (Dictyoptera,Blaberidae, Panesthiinae)

In subsocial xylophagous cockroaches it is thought that parental feeding is important for the survival and growth of the altricial offspring, but the details of parental feeding in these groups are poorly known. We observed stomodeal (oral) trophallaxis between parents and the 2nd or 3rd instars of the wood‐feeding cockroach Salganea esakii Roth, and here report basic features of trophallaxis in young families. Both the female and male parents fed young nymphs with stomodeal food, and there was no difference in the frequency of the behavior between parental sexes. Up to three nymphs could be fed simultaneously during a single trophallactic event. Adults occasionally rejected contact with nymphs by blocking them with their forelegs. Nymphs utilized trophallactic food from parents more frequently than feeding independently on wood pieces or fecal pellets. Trophallaxis between sibling nymphs was never observed. These results suggest that the 2nd and 3rd instar nymphs rely on the stomodeal substances provided by their parents, and that provisioning is an essential component of subsocial behavior in biparental wood‐feeding cockroaches.     

Infraspecific variation in Cerastium alpinum s. lat. (Caryophyllaceae) in Central Norway

Within Cerastium alpinum s. lat., several taxa have been circumscribed. Three infraspecific taxa are currently recognized in Nordic literature, but the opinions have varied about their taxonomic levels and relations to each other. Populations of these three taxa — alpinum, glabratum and lanatum — were investigated in Central Norway to elucidate taxonomic relationships on a regional scale. Morphometric analyses (PCA ordination) based on two data sets; one with 61 characters, and one without the 35 indumentum characters, gave different results. The former partly support the use of a higher rank for glabratum , but this analysis may put too much weight on indumentum characters. The reduced data set gave a more continuous transition between the three taxa, with no special status for glabratum. Crossing experiments between the taxa indicated full cross compatibility as far as relative seed set was concerned. Finally, vegetation analysis (DCA ordination) indicated that the three taxa have somewhat different ecological demands. This suggests that they, in spite of hybridization abilities, normally are maintained as separate entities due to habitat differences. A delimitation of three infraspecific taxa at the same level within C. alpinum s. lat. is thus supported by this study. Whether these taxa should be treated as subspecies or varieties strongly depends upon the definitions of these categories. Viewed in a wide geographical context, however, the arguments for subspecific rank are strengthened.     

The community structures of the coniferous and deciduous dead wood‐dwelling arthropods in Korea

We examined the structure of the arthropod community among deciduous and coniferous dead woods along the process of wood decay. We collected dead wood‐dwelling arthropods from April 2010 to October 2011 by using a vacuum aspirator and an electric chain saw in three areas (Mt. Woonak, Mt. Wolchul, Mt. Jingang) in Korea. We identified them to species levels and classified them into functional groups. We collected 8792 arthropods (5 classes, 20 orders, 58 families, and 93 species). The species richness and abundance of arthropods increased with the progress of decay in dead woods. The evenness index seemed to be shown at a lower value at late decay stage than at early‐ and mid‐decay stages. The diversity index (H′) in conifers was lower than that in deciduous dead woods at the early decay stage but this situation was reversed at the late decay stage. Arthropod communities of functional groups, except the xylophagous insects, did not differ in the variables, but the proportion of xylophagous insects increased as the decay stages progressed. The abundance of arthropods and xylophagous was statistically significantly different. The patterns generated by non‐metric multidimensional scaling in the overall arthropod community composition revealed that the species composition between study areas were significantly different. We confirmed that dead woods play very important roles as arthropods' habitats. Thus, we suggest that the role of dead woods should be emphasized in the management of forest ecosystems.     

Relationships among wood‐boring beetles,fungi, and the decomposition of forest biomass

A prevailing paradigm in forest ecology is that wood‐boring beetles facilitate wood decay and carbon cycling, but empirical tests have yielded mixed results. We experimentally determined the effects of wood borers on fungal community assembly and wood decay within pine trunks in the southeastern United States. Pine trunks were made either beetle‐accessible or inaccessible. Fungal communities were compared using culturing and high‐throughput amplicon sequencing (HTAS) of DNA and RNA. Prior to beetle infestation, living pines had diverse fungal endophyte communities. Endophytes were displaced by beetle‐associated fungi in beetle‐accessible trees, whereas some endophytes persisted as saprotrophs in beetle‐excluded trees. Beetles increased fungal diversity several fold. Over forty taxa of Ascomycota were significantly associated with beetles, but beetles were not consistently associated with any known wood‐decaying fungi. Instead, increasing ambrosia beetle infestations caused reduced decay, consistent with previous in vitro experiments that showed beetle‐associated fungi reduce decay rates by competing with decay fungi. No effect of bark‐inhabiting beetles on decay was detected. Platypodines carried significantly more fungal taxa than scolytines. Molecular results were validated by synthetic and biological mock communities and were consistent across methodologies. RNA sequencing confirmed that beetle‐associated fungi were biologically active in the wood. Metabarcode sequencing of the LSU/28S marker recovered important fungal symbionts that were missed by ITS2, though community‐level effects were similar between markers. In contrast to the current paradigm, our results indicate ambrosia beetles introduce diverse fungal communities that do not extensively decay wood, but instead reduce decay rates by competing with wood decay fungi.     

The flea genus Sigmactenus (Siphonaptera: Leptopsyllidae): three new taxa from Sulawesi, updated identification key, and distribution map for all known species and subspecies

One new species and two new subspecies of fleas are described. These are S. sulawesiensis n. sp. from North and Central Sulawesi, S. alticola pilosus n. ssp. from Central Sulawesi, and S. alticola crassinavis n. ssp. from North Sulawesi. All three of these new taxa are ectoparasites of native, endemic murine rodents. Two of the new taxa, S. sulawesiensis and S. alticola crassinavis, coexist on the same mountain, Gunung Moajat, in North Sulawesi. The related S. alticola alticola, which becomes the nominate subspecies, parasitises the murine rodent Maxomys alticola in northern Borneo (Sabah) and it is hypothesized that Sigmactenus first colonized Sulawesi as an ectoparasite of ancestral Maxomys, or perhaps Rattus, as these murines dispersed from southeast Asia to Sulawesi; 15 endemic murine rodent species belonging to these two genera are known to currently inhabit Sulawesi. An identification key and distribution map are included for all known species and subspecies of Sigmactenus. In addition to the three new taxa and S. a. alticola, these include: S. celebensis from South Sulawesi, S. timorensis from Timor, S. toxopeusi from New Guinea, and S. werneri from the Philippines (Mindanao and Negros).     

Phylogeographic patterns of steppe species in Eastern Central Europe: a review and the implications for conservation

The phylogeography of species associated with European steppes and extrazonal xeric grasslands is poorly understood. This paper summarizes the results of recent studies on the phylogeography and conservation genetics of animals (20 taxa of beetles, butterflies, reptiles and rodents) and flowering plants (18 taxa) of such, "steppic" habitats in Eastern Central Europe. Most species show a similar phylogeographic pattern: relatively high genetic similarity within regional groups of populations and moderate-to-high genetic distinctiveness of populations from currently isolated regions located in the studied area. This distinctiveness of populations suggests a survival here during glacial maxima, including areas north of the Bohemian Massif-Carpathians arc. Steppic species generally do not follow the paradigmatic patterns known for temperate biota (south-north “contraction–expansion”), but to some extent are similar to those of arctic-alpine taxa. There are three main groups of taxa within Eastern Central Europe that differ in their contemporary distribution pattern, which may reflect historical origin and expansion routes. Present diversity patterns of the studied steppic species suggest that they share a unique genetic signature and distinct assemblages exist in each of the now isolated areas rich in steppic habitats. At least some of these areas probably act as present “interglacial refugia” for steppic species. This study strongly supports the need to protect steppic species throughout their entire ranges in the region, as the continuous destruction of steppic habitats in some areas may lead not only to the disappearance of local populations, but also to the extinction of unique evolutionary units.     

Nomenclature of wood-inhabiting groups in forest entomology: synthesis and semantic adjustments

The terminology of ecological groups in saproxylic insects (organisms depending on dying or dead wood) is used ambiguously by forest entomologists. We therefore propose a standardized typology of wood-eating groups, based on two crossed factors, i.e. nature and physiological status of woody tissues. We define primary and secondary xylophagous insects (corticiphagous, cambiophagous, xylemophagous), as well as saproxylophagous species. Insects indirectly related to dead wood are classified according to (i) the food regime: consumers of wood-associated resources (xylomycophagous, xylomycetophagous, opophagous), commensals (scavengers), predators, or (ii) the microhabitat users (fongicolous, cavicolous, succicolous).     

How Deep-Sea Wood Falls Sustain Chemosynthetic Life

Large organic food falls to the deep sea – such as whale carcasses and wood logs – are known to serve as stepping stones for the dispersal of highly adapted chemosynthetic organisms inhabiting hot vents and cold seeps. Here we investigated the biogeochemical and microbiological processes leading to the development of sulfidic niches by deploying wood colonization experiments at a depth of 1690 m in the Eastern Mediterranean for one year. Wood-boring bivalves of the genus Xylophaga played a key role in the degradation of the wood logs, facilitating the development of anoxic zones and anaerobic microbial processes such as sulfate reduction. Fauna and bacteria associated with the wood included types reported from other deep-sea habitats including chemosynthetic ecosystems, confirming the potential role of large organic food falls as biodiversity hot spots and stepping stones for vent and seep communities. Specific bacterial communities developed on and around the wood falls within one year and were distinct from freshly submerged wood and background sediments. These included sulfate-reducing and cellulolytic bacterial taxa, which are likely to play an important role in the utilization of wood by chemosynthetic life and other deep-sea animals.     

Do cave features affect underground habitat exploitation by non-troglobite species?

Many biospeleological studies focus on organisms that are exclusive inhabitants of the subterranean realm, but organisms that are not obligate cave-dwellers are frequent in caves, and may account for a substantial portion of biomass. Moreover, several taxa that are usually epigeous are regularly found inside caves, but for most of them it is unknown whether they accidentally enter them, or whether they actively select caves for specific environmental features. In this study we analysed the community of non-strict cave-dwelling organisms (amphibians, gastropods, spiders and orthopterans) in 33 caves from Central Italy, to assess how environmental factors determine community structure. Cave features strongly affected the distribution of the taxa considered. The combined effect of cave morphology and microclimate explained nearly 50% of the variation of community structure. Most of community variation occurred along a gradient from deep, dark and humid caves, to dry caves with wider entrances and extended photic areas. Most of species were associated with humid, deep and dark caves. Most of the non-troglobiont amphibians and invertebrates did not occur randomly in caves, but were associated to caves with specific environmental features. Analysing relationships between cave-dwelling species and environmental variables can allow a more ecological and objective classification of cave-dwelling organisms.     

Host plant relations in the planthopper genus Ribautodelphax (Homoptera, Delphacidae)

ABSTRACT. 1. Host plant relations of closely related species and pseudogamous triploid forms of the planthopper genus Ribautodelphax were studied.
2. From field data and experimental results it is concluded that eleven European Ribautodelphax species and undescribed taxa are monophagous or oligophagous on different grass species. Only two Ribautodelphax species are found on the same grass species in the field.
3. Differential host plant relations indicate that four recently discovered taxa are probably true species.
4. Ribautodelphax species show a more restricted host plant range in choice experiments compared with breeding tests.
5. Choice experiments indicate no differences in host plant preference between males and females of two Ribautodelphax species.
6. No differences are found in host plant relations between bisexual species and associated pseudogamous triploid forms.     

A consensus classification for the order Gentianales with additional details on the suborder Apocynineae

The Gentianales as circumscribed by Benson, Cronquist, Dahlgren, Goldberg, Hey wood et al., Melchior, Stebbins, Takhtajan, and Thorne is investigated. From these a consensus classification (not in the cladistic sense) or classificatory model for the order is proposed. This classification is discussed, as are the relationships of the taxa within it. Excluded taxa are also discussed. In particular, the Apocynineae is examined in detail and it is pointed out that for this suborder the present consensus classification, at the family level, is congruous only if the taxa involved are monophyletic. Data are then supplied to show that, as yet, neither monophyly nor paraphyly can be proved conclusively for the taxa of the Apocynineae. Cet article examine l’ordre des Gentianales tel qu’il se décrit chez Benson, Cronquist, Dahlgren, Goldberg, Hey wood et al., Melchior, Stebbins, Takhtajan et Thorne. A partir de ceci un schéma classificatoire est proposé pour l’ordre. Cette classification convenue est discutée, ainsi que les relations des taxa y figurant. Les taxa exclus sont également discutés. L’ordre des Apocynineae subit un examen particulier et il est avancé que pour ce sous-ordre la classification convenue actuelle, au niveau de la famille, n’est convenable que lorsque les taxa en question relévent d’un seul phylum. Finalement les données sont appliquées pour démontrer qu’il n’existe jusqu’ à présent aucune preuve définitive quant à la monophylie ou la paraphylie des taxa de l’ordre des Apocynineae.

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An erratum to this article is available at .     

A comparison of algal,macroinvertebrate, and fish assemblage indices for assessing low-level nutrient enrichment in wadeable Ozark streams

Biotic indices for algae, macroinvertebrates, and fish assemblages can be effective for monitoring stream enrichment, but little is known regarding the value of the three assemblages for detecting perturbance as a consequence of low-level nutrient enrichment. In the summer of 2006, we collected nutrient and biotic samples from 30 wadeable Ozark streams that spanned a nutrient-concentration gradient from reference to moderately enriched conditions. Seventy-three algal metrics, 62 macroinvertebrate metrics, and 60 fish metrics were evaluated for each of the three biotic indices. After a group of candidate metrics had been identified with multivariate analysis, correlation procedures and scatter plots were used to identify the four metrics having strongest relations to a nutrient index calculated from log transformed and normalized total nitrogen and total phosphorus concentrations. The four metrics selected for each of the three biotic indices were: algae—the relative abundance of most tolerant diatoms, the combined relative abundance of three species of Cymbella, mesosaprobic algae percent taxa richness, and the relative abundance of diatoms that are obligate nitrogen heterotrophs; macroinvertebrate—the relative abundance of intolerant organisms, Baetidae relative abundance, moderately tolerant taxa richness, and insect biomass; fish—herbivore and detritivore taxa richness, pool species relative abundance, fish catch per unit effort, and black bass (Micropterus spp.) relative abundance.All three biotic indices were negatively correlated to nutrient concentrations but the algal index had a higher correlation (rho = ?0.89) than did the macroinvertebrate and fish indices (rho = ?0.63 and ?0.58, respectively). Biotic index scores were lowest and nutrient concentrations were highest for streams with basins having the highest poultry and cattle production. Because of the availability of litter for fertilizer and associated increases in grass and hay production, cattle feeding capacity increases with poultry production. Studies are needed that address the synergistic effect of poultry and cattle production on Ozark streams in high production areas before ecological risks can be adequately addressed.     

Genotypic characteristics of the Cladocera

Work on the genetics of cladocerans reproducing by cyclic parthenogenesis has indicated that populations usually include a large number of genotypes, whose frequencies are in close approximation to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Less diverse genotypic arrays and pronounced instability in genotype frequencies occur only in permanent populations exposed to limited ephippial recruitment. Genetic diversification among local cladoceran populations is greater than in most other organisms as a consequence of the inefficiency of passive dispersal. Genotypic characteristics of cladocerans reproducing by obligate parthenogenesis are markedly different from those of cyclic parthenogens. Local populations include few clones, but genetic distances between them are often large and accompanied by significant ecological and morphological divergence. When considered over their entire range, cladoceran taxa reproducing by obligate asexuality are the most genotypically diverse asexual organisms known. This diversity has originated from the spread of a sex-limited meiosis suppressor through species that originally reproduced by cyclic parthenogenesis. The confused state of cladoceran taxonomy is partially a consequence of the presence of such obligately asexual groups, but also results from the occurrence of hybridization and sibling species. The genome size of cladocerans is exceptionally small and is associated with a large amount of endopolyploidy. Somatic tissues in adult cladocerans show a range in nuclear DNA content from 2–2048 c. DNA quantification studies have additionally revealed the frequent occurrence of polyploid clones in obligately asexual taxa.     

Functional morphology of the ovipositor in Megarhyssa atrata (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) and its penetration into wood

Megarhyssa atrata (Pimplinae) is the largest species known amongst Hymenoptera. In its natural habitat, North America, it is a strict parasito¨ıd of Tremex columba (Hymenoptera, Symphyta, Siricidae). The para- site infests xylophagous host larvae buried in wood. The present work describes the complex movements of the ovipositor during oviposition and its flexibility ensuring the positioning of the stylus at the site of boring. These movements are made possible by the unfolding of the intersegmentary membranes (equipped with a secretory internal surface) and by the full rotation of abdominal segments 8 and 9. During this rotation, the stylus of the ovipositor pushes and extends the membranes completely which, as a result, form a translucent disc measuring 2 cm in diameter. The entry of the stylus into wood is helped by another secretion produced at the tip of the valvulae. This lytic secretion destroys wood fibers. With this set of adaptations, the hymenopteran can bore into a thickness of hard wood and reach its host larvae at a depth of 14 cm. Accepted: 2 May 1999