The TD6.3 faunal assemblage of the Gran Dolina site (Atapuerca,Spain): a late Early Pleistocene hyena den

Ethological studies have shown that besides human groups, large-medium carnivores have bone-collecting habits. The research developed since the last half of the twentieth century has attempted to characterise the carnivore’s accumulations and to identify them in the archaeo-paleontological record. At present, we have diagnostic criteria that define the accumulations produced by hyenids (mainly, Crocuta crocuta), thereby allowing us to differentiate them from the other accumulating agents. The faunal assemblage recovered at the Early Pleistocene TD6.3 layer of the Gran Dolina site is characterised by the presence of typical elements described in hyena dens: presence of small carnivores remains, high bone breakage, low epiphysis survival and a high frequency (>30%) of specimens with carnivore induced modifications, including large amounts of digested bones. However, attritional mortality profiles, hyena’s cubs remains, mid-shaft bone cylinders or differential anatomical composition among different weight-sizes, have not been observed or are ambiguous. In addition, anthropic evidences are scarce and concentrated in the uppermost section of the layer. TD6.3 is the result of an accumulation produced by hyenas using the cave as a den, in alternation with sporadic occupations by hominin groups. TD6.3 shows that hyena fossil accumulations may present great anatomical and taxonomic variability.     

Intrinsic qualities of primate bones as predictors of skeletal element representation in modern and fossil carnivore feeding assemblages

Plio-Pleistocene faunal assemblages from Swartkrans Cave (South Africa) preserve large numbers of primate remains. Brain, C.K., 1981. The Hunters or the Hunted? An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy. University of Chicago Press, Chicago suggested that these primate subassemblages might have resulted from a focus by carnivores on primate predation and bone accumulation. Brain's hypothesis prompted us to investigate, in a previous study, this taphonomic issue as it relates to density-mediated destruction of primate bones (J. Archaeol. Sci. 29, 2002, 883). Here we extend our investigation of Brain's hypothesis by examining additional intrinsic qualities of baboon bones and their role as mediators of skeletal element representation in carnivore-created assemblages. Using three modern adult baboon skeletons, we collected data on four intrinsic bone qualities (bulk bone mineral density, maximum length, volume, and cross-sectional area) for approximately 81 bones per baboon skeleton. We investigated the relationship between these intrinsic bone qualities and a measure of skeletal part representation (the percentage minimum animal unit) for baboon bones in carnivore refuse and scat assemblages. Refuse assemblages consist of baboon bones not ingested during ten separate experimental feeding episodes in which individual baboon carcasses were fed to individual captive leopards and a spotted hyena. Scat assemblages consist of those baboon bones recovered in carnivore regurgitations and feces resulting from the feeding episodes. In refuse assemblages, volume (i.e., size) was consistently the best predictor of element representation, while cross-sectional area was the poorest predictor in the leopard refuse assemblage and bulk bone mineral density (i.e., a measure of the proportion of cortical to trabecular bone) was the poorest predictor in the hyena refuse assemblage. In light of previous documentation of carnivore-induced density-mediated destruction to bone assemblages, we interpret the current findings as suggestive of the secondary importance of bulk bone mineral density to other intrinsic qualities of skeletal elements (e.g., size, maximum dimension, and average cross-sectional area). It is only when skeletal elements are too large for consumption (e.g., many long bones) that they are fragmented following intra-element patterns of density-mediated carnivore destruction. There appears to be a size threshold beneath which bulk bone mineral density contributes little to mediating carnivore destruction of carcasses. Thus, depending on body size of the predator, body size of the prey, and specific size of the element, bulk bone mineral density may play little or no role of primary importance in mediating the destruction of skeletal elements. We compare patterns in modern comparative assemblages to patterns in primate fossil assemblages from Swartkrans. One of the fossil assemblages, Swartkrans Member 1, Hanging Remnant, most closely approximates a hyena (possibly refuse) assemblage pattern, while the Swartkrans Member 2 assemblage most closely approximates a leopard (possibly scat) assemblage pattern. The Swartkrans Member 1, Lower Bank, assemblage does not closely approximate any of our modern comparative assemblage patterns.     

Periodontal health in free-ranging baboons of Ethiopia and Kenya

Frontal and lateral intraoral photographs of 19 baboons from the Awash National Park, Ethiopia and 37 baboons from Amboseli National Park, Kenya, were used to assess periodontal health. The Awash baboons, and two groups (Alto's and Hook's) at Amboseli, fed entirely from natural sources, but baboons from the third Amboseli group (Lodge) fed largely on food refuse from one of the park's lodges. Juveniles and adults were evaluated separately. Intraoral photographs were seriated based on visual appraisals of periodontal health. In both age groups, the best periodontal health was seen in Awash animals; Alto's and Hook's animals were intermediate, and the poorest health was seen in the Lodge sample. The periodontal health decreased with age in adult baboons, as reported in humans. Geochemistry, genetics, age, and diet (particularly variations in bacterial flora) were considered as factors contributing to the intergroup differences. Although it is not possible at present to exclude any of these as a contributing cause, we consider that diet in the broad sense (including food, water, and contamination by oral bacteria of human origin) probably plays a major role. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Faunal remains from Porc-Epic: paleoecological and zooarchaeological investigations from a Middle Stone Age site in southeastern Ethiopia

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) sediments of Porc-Epic Cave near Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, have produced a large assemblage of archaeofaunal remains dating to the later periods of the Late Pleistocene. As one of the few MSA faunal assemblages from East Africa subject to detailed analysis, it provides rare insight into the foraging behavior of the early modern humans in this region. The MSA fauna include taxa that were not historically present in the area, with the occurrence of reduncines and alcelaphines indicating widespread grasslands and proximity to a perennial source of water. The faunal analysis examined several lines of evidence, including breakage patterns, surface modification, and skeletal-element representation. By incorporating comparisons with multiple actualistic data sets, the analysis of the assemblage demonstrates that, while the influence of carnivores and other biotic agents was evident, the faunal remains were accumulated primarily by hominid activity. The skeletal-element representation at Porc-Epic includes an abundance of high utility bones, in contrast to the predominance of "head-and-foot" elements documented at other MSA and Middle Paleolithic (MP) sites. The MSA occupants of Porc-Epic effectively exploited a wide range of prey with more emphasis on small- and medium-sized mammals.     

Late Pleistocene human remains from Wezmeh Cave, western Iran

Paleontological analysis of remains from Wezmeh Cave in western Iran have yielded a Holocene Chalcolithic archeological assemblage, a rich Late Pleistocene carnivore faunal assemblage, and an isolated unerupted human maxillary premolar (P(3) or possibly P(4)). Species representation and U-series dating of faunal teeth place the carnivore assemblage during oxygen isotope stages (OIS) 3 and 2, and noninvasive gamma spectrometry dating of the human premolar places it at least as old as early OIS 2. The human premolar crown morphology is not diagnostic of late archaic versus early modern human affinities, but its buccolingual diameter places it at the upper limits of Late Pleistocene human P(3) and P(4) dimensions and separate from a terminal Pleistocene regional sample. Wezmeh Cave therefore provides additional Paleolithic human remains from the Zagros Mountains and further documents Late Pleistocene human association with otherwise carnivore-dominated cave assemblages.     

Taphonomic Analysis of the Faunal Assemblage Associated with the Hominins (Australopithecus sediba) from the Early Pleistocene Cave Deposits of Malapa,South Africa

Here we present the results of a taphonomic study of the faunal assemblage associated with the hominin fossils (Australopithecus sediba) from the Malapa site. Results include estimation of body part representation, mortality profiles, type of fragmentation, identification of breakage patterns, and microscopic analysis of bone surfaces. The diversity of the faunal spectrum, presence of animals with climbing proclivities, abundance of complete and/or articulated specimens, occurrence of antimeric sets of elements, and lack of carnivore-modified bones, indicate that animals accumulated via a natural death trap leading to an area of the cave system with no access to mammalian scavengers. The co-occurrence of well preserved fossils, carnivore coprolites, deciduous teeth of brown hyaena, and some highly fragmented and poorly preserved remains supports the hypothesis of a mixing of sediments coming from distinct chambers, which collected at the bottom of the cave system through the action of periodic water flow. This combination of taphonomic features explains the remarkable state of preservation of the hominin fossils as well as some of the associated faunal material.     

The large-mammal fauna from the Kibish Formation

The Kibish faunal remains are useful for reconstructing the habitat of the earliest documented Homo sapiens and for understanding the community within which early modern humans existed. A diverse assemblage of large mammals, including many species of bovids, suids, and equids, has been recovered from the Kibish Formation. There are no extinct large mammals represented in the fossil assemblage, and the overall taxonomic composition of the fossil fauna is similar to the modern-day wildlife community living near the Omo River. The fossil faunal assemblage shows a paucity of arboreal primates, and carnivore species are rare. However, the faunal sample includes possible Cephalophus (duiker) remains and Hylochoerus meinertzhageni (giant forest hog), taxa that are extremely rare in the African fossil record, and both indicate more closed habitats. Comparative analyses of the Kibish faunal remains using the ecological-diversity approach document close associations with edaphic grassland and woodland vegetation types. These vegetation forms are similar to current habitats surrounding the Omo River.     

Leftover prey remains: a new taphonomic mode from the Late Miocene Cerro Azul Formation of Central Argentina

The Cerro Azul Formation (La Pampa Province, Argentina) comprises a rich vertebrate fauna of small mammals dominated by notoungulates and rodents. The fauna pertains to the Late Miocene specifically to the Huayquerian Stage/Age. Taphonomic analysis of micro‐mammals from Estancia Ré locality evidenced that the faunal assemblage was accumulated by the activity of a predator. This assemblage was compared with others from the Cerro Azul Formation in Telén and Caleufú localities (La Pampa Province), previously interpreted as products of predator activities. These microfossil accumulations differ from assemblages attributed to pellets and faeces produced by modern predators (nocturnal and diurnal bird raptors and carnivore mammals). However, due to their anatomical representation, degree of bone breakage and presence of tooth marks, they are interpreted as accumulations of uneaten prey remains discarded by the predator. The predator involved could not be determined with certainty, although the presence of tooth marks in some skeletal remains and the presence of coprolites in Telén and Caleufú suggest that it could be a carnivore mammal. Similarities in the accumulation mechanism, patterns of preservation and sedimentary contexts in the three assemblages support the recognition of a new taphonomic mode, termed ‘leftover prey remains’.     

Mio-Pliocene mammals from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia

The Middle Awash paleontological study area, located in the Afar Rift of Ethiopia, has yielded fossils spanning the last six million years. The geology and geochronology of the Mio-Pliocene sites of the study area have been refined and a reliable chronostratigraphy has been established by ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar radiometric dating. The latest Miocene Adu-Asa Formation is divided into four members distinguished from each other by silicic and basaltic tuff marker horizons, most of which are dated basaltic tuffs. Radiometric dating has constrained the age of the Adu-Asa Formation to between 5.2-5.8 Ma. These dates are also supported by paleomagnetic results and biochronology. More than 2,000 fossil specimens were collected from the Adu-Asa Formation between 1992 and 2000. These fossils document 64 mammalian species belonging to 32 genera, 23 families, and 8 orders. This assemblage includes a number of new taxa. Included in the assemblage are First and Last Appearance Datums (FADs and LADs) of some groups, including the earliest record of the hominid genus Ardipithecus. Most of the taxa indicate a predominance of mesic and wooded habitat during the deposition of the Adu-Asa Formation. In these deposits, colobines, viverrids, mustelids, bovines, boselaphines, and tragelaphines are abundant, whereas alcelaphines are absent. Quantitative analyses of biogeographic relationships of the Middle Awash Late Miocene (MALM) mammalian fauna indicate stronger relationships with other African sites than with faunas from Eurasian sites. The MALM deposits have generated a critical dataset for analytic work on past environments, biogeographic relationships, and African vertebrate evolution. Moreover, the geographic position of the Middle Awash, coupled with its precise calibration and chronological span, make it a key section for interpreting latest Miocene faunal interchanges between Africa and Eurasia.     

Modern hunting behavior in the early Middle Paleolithic: faunal remains from Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel

Understanding the behavioral adaptations and subsistence strategies of Middle Paleolithic humans is critical in the debate over the evolution and manifestations of modern human behavior. The study of faunal remains plays a central role in this context. Until now, the majority of Levantine archaeofaunal evidence was derived from late Middle Paleolithic sites. The discovery of faunal remains from Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel (>200 ka), allowed for detailed taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses of these early Middle Paleolithic remains. The Misliya Cave faunal assemblage is overwhelmingly dominated by ungulate taxa. The most common prey species is the Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica), followed closely by the mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella). Some aurochs (Bos primigenius) remains are also present. Small-game species are rare. The fallow deer mortality pattern is dominated by prime-aged individuals. A multivariate taphonomic analysis demonstrates (1) that the assemblage was created solely by humans occupying the cave and was primarily modified by their food-processing activities; and (2) that gazelle carcasses were transported complete to the site, while fallow deer carcasses underwent some field butchery. The new zooarchaeological data from Misliya Cave, particularly the abundance of meat-bearing limb bones displaying filleting cut marks and the acquisition of prime-age prey, demonstrate that early Middle Paleolithic people possessed developed hunting capabilities. Thus, modern large-game hunting, carcass transport, and meat-processing behaviors were already established in the Levant in the early Middle Paleolithic, more than 200 ka ago.     

Neandertals paleoenvironment in Western Provence: The contribution of Les Auzières 2 (Méthamis,Vaucluse, France)

The site of Les Auzières 2 (Méthamis, Vaucluse) was excavated from 2001 to 2005. It yielded an original and diverse fauna, unique in southeastern France (Provence). The spectrum of large mammals comprises 14 species including hyena, horse, ibex, woolly rhinoceros, giant deer and mammoth. Lithic artifacts are rare but testify to the presence of a Mousterian industry. All of these remains derive from layers that have been dated to 60 ± 10 ka by ESR/U-series method. Les Auzières 2 is of special importance for examining the issue of human/carnivore interaction in the Pleistocene since it has yielded a large assemblage of carnivore remains, and probably represents a hyena den. The diverse fauna offers a more comprehensive picture of Upper Pleistocene biodiversity in southeastern France than that usually provided by sites with a stronger anthropogenic signal.     

Which predators are responsible for faunal accumulations at the Late Pleistocene layers of El Harhoura 2 Cave (Témara,Morocco)?

El Harhoura 2 cave (Témara, Morocco) has yielded Aterian and Iberomaurusian lithic artifacts associated with faunal remains. Both humans and carnivores occupied this cave and non-human predator modifications occurred mainly at the end of the Late Pleistocene. Diverse faunal taxa have been identified, with a predominance of gazelles and various carnivores, particularly canids. The location of the cave and of the excavation area, at the bottom of a cliff of low elevation and in the entrance of the cave, does not correspond to a protected area for large raptor nests or a natural trap. Considering the consumed species, the type of carnivore remains, the skeletal representation of prey, taphonomic alterations such as tooth marks, semi-digested bones and destruction sequences, large canids would be the main cause for faunal modifications. However, North African fossil data attributed to hyena activities present similar results. This paper highlights the difficulty of discriminating between potential accumulators/consumers due to a lack of taphonomic reference data. This study thus demonstrates the necessity of compiling fossil records and neotaphonomic reference data for North African medium-large predators in order to better understand the taphonomic history of North African archaeological and paleontological sites.     

The Late Pleistocene faunal assemblage from Cava Muracci (Latium,Italy): Palaeoenvironmental implications for coastal central Italy during MIS 3

Palaeoenvironmental information on Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3) coastal Latium is sparse, mainly based on studies of isolated faunal assemblages or long pollen records from lake sediments, often of insufficient resolution to aid in palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. This study describes in detail the Late Pleistocene faunal assemblage from layers SU11 and SU12 of Cava Muracci (Cisterna di Latina, central Italy), the first of which is a partially-preserved hyena den. The first multi-disciplinary palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of coastal Latium between 34–44 ka BP, a critical time span for the presence of the latest Neanderthals and the arrival of Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH), is provided combining palaeoecological inferences from a previous pollen study of hyena coprolites with the palaeontological study described here. The results indicate a temperate climate and a landscape characterised by the coexistence of at least three habitats within a short distance between the coastline and the inland mountains, suitable for a wide variety of species.     

U-series and radiocarbon analyses of human and faunal remains from Wajak,Indonesia

Laser ablation U-series dating results on human and faunal bone fragments from Wajak, Indonesia, indicate a minimum age of between 37.4 and 28.5 ka (thousands of years ago) for the whole assemblage. These are significantly older than previously published radiocarbon estimates on bone carbonate, which suggested a Holocene age for a human bone fragment and a late Pleistocene age for a faunal bone. The analysis of the organic components in the faunal material show severe degradation and a positive δ¹³C ratio indicate a high degree of secondary carbonatisation. This may explain why the thermal release method used for the original age assessments yielded such young ages. While the older U-series ages are not in contradiction with the morphology of the Wajak human fossils or Javanese biostratigraphy, they will require a reassessment of the evolutionary relationships of modern human remains in Southeast Asia and Oceania. It can be expected that systematic direct dating of human fossils from this area will lead to further revisions of our understanding of modern human evolution.     

The Prey Pathway: A Regional History of Cattle (Bos taurus) and Pig (Sus scrofa) Domestication in the Northern Jordan Valley,Israel

The faunal assemblage from the 9^th-8^th millennium BP site at Sha''ar Hagolan, Israel, is used to study human interaction with wild suids and cattle in a time period just before the appearance of domesticated animals of these species in the Jordan Valley. Our results, based on demographic and osteometric data, indicate that full domestication of both cattle and suids occurred at the site during the 8^th millennium. Importantly, domestication was preceded in both taxa by demographic and metric population parameters indicating severe overhunting. The possible role of overhunting in shaping the characteristics of domesticated animals and the social infrastructure to ownership of herds is then explored.     

A Mammalian Lost World in Southwest Europe during the Late Pliocene

Background

Over the last decades, there has been an increasing interest on the chronology, distribution and mammal taxonomy (including hominins) related with the faunal turnovers that took place around the Pliocene-Pleistocene transition [ca. 1.8 mega-annum (Ma)] in Europe. However, these turnovers are not fully understood due to: the precarious nature of the period''s fossil record; the “non-coexistence” in this record of many of the species involved; and the enormous geographical area encompassed. This palaeontological information gap can now be in part bridged with data from the Fonelas P-1 site (Granada, Spain), whose faunal composition and late Upper Pliocene date shed light on some of the problems concerning the timing and geography of the dispersals.

Methodology/Principal Findings

This rich fossil site yielded 32 species of mammals, among which autochthonous species of the European Upper Villafranchian coexist with canids (Canis), ovibovines (Praeovibos) and giraffids (Mitilanotherium) from Asia. Typical African species, such as the brown hyena (Hyaena brunnea) and the bush pig (Potamochoerus) are also present.

Conclusions/Significance

This assemblage is taxonomically and palaeobiogeographically unique, and suggests that fewer dispersal events than was previously thought (possibly only one close to 2.0 Ma) are responsible for the changes seen around 1.9–1.7 Ma ago in the fauna of the two continents.     

The Pleistocene easternmost distribution in Eurasia of the species associated with the Eemian Palaeoloxodon antiquus assemblage

• 1 The Palaeoloxodon antiquus large‐mammal assemblage was typical of the late middle and late Pleistocene interglacials in Europe. This review examines the assemblage's origins, dispersal and cohesiveness in Eurasia.
• 2 During the more climatically equable middle‐Pleistocene periods, the Palaeoloxodon assemblage (or closely related) species occurred across central Eurasia almost simultaneously. In Central and Western Europe, these species responded to climatic changes together as an unvarying interglacial assemblage, whereas in Eastern Europe and Siberia, they occurred in diverging assemblages. The boundary of the Palaeoloxodon assemblage can be drawn roughly from Poland to Romania.
• 3 In Central and Western Europe this interglacial assemblage last occurred during the Eemian. During this period many of the Palaeoloxodon assemblage species may also have co‐occurred in south‐eastern Europe and, except for Bubalus murrensis and Hippopotamus amphibius, further eastwards. The extinct species of the Palaeoloxodon assemblage disappeared in Siberia and Central Asia prior to Europe and the Caucasus whereas the extant species were already present in their modern distribution areas.
• 4 A quantitative study of faunal associations across Eurasia, following much‐needed comprehensive systematic reviews, would further elucidate the patterns of faunal change associated with local and global climatic changes during the middle to late Pleistocene.

     

Vertebrate taphonomy in loess-palaeosol deposits: A case study from the late Miocene of central Argentina

This paper deals with the taphonomic analysis of the late Miocene bone assemblage from the Cerro Azul Formation at Telén (La Pampa Province, Argentina). The faunal assemblage was assigned to the Huayquerian mammal age (late Miocene). The fossiliferous section shows a homogeneous lithology, and is interpreted as a loess deposit with two similar and slightly developed palaeosols, classified as calcic vertisols. The studied sample comprises 5598 remains anatomically and taxonomically determined. They were collected from an area of about 48,000 m², appearing randomly distributed through the section and with low density. Most remains are small- to very small-sized, disarticulated, and very fragmented. Different taphonomical histories are inferred for microvertebrates and macromammals. The microvertebrate assemblage is interpreted as the result of predator activities. After a brief period of pre-burial exposure, remains were dispersed from the original depositional area. On the other hand, a natural and gradual death process is envisaged for macromammals, followed by a long period of exposure to weathering and dispersal by physical agents. Remains of both groups, once buried, suffered the diagenetic processes of the host rock. Consequently, the fossil assemblage from Telén would represent a condensed assemblage corresponding to two distinct time spans, i.e., the accumulation of microvertebrates took place in a short time interval whereas that of macromammals occurred over a longer period, coincident with the development of both soils.     

Paleolithic hominin remains from Eshkaft-e Gavi (southern Zagros Mountains, Iran): description, affinities, and evidence for butchery

Eshkaft-e Gavi is a cave located in the southern Zagros Mountains of Iran and is one of the few archaeological sites in the region to preserve both Middle Paleolithic and Upper Paleolithic occupations. Excavation of the site in the 1970s yielded an assemblage of lithic and faunal remains, including ten hominin specimens: a mandibular molar, four cranial fragments, a clavicular diaphysis, the proximal half of a metacarpal, a fragment of os coxa, the proximal diaphysis of a juvenile femur, and a patella. The bones derive from a minimum of four individuals, including two juveniles. Although many of these remains could be Epi-Paleolithic in age, one of the juvenile specimens—the mandibular molar—occurs at the base of the cave's Upper Paleolithic sequence. The remains are very fragmentary, but those that preserve diagnostic morphology indicate that they represent modern humans. The molar is taxonomically diagnostic, thus confirming the association of the Aurignacian-like Baradostian Industry with modern humans. Four of the specimens—a piece of frontal bone, the clavicle, the juvenile femur, and the patella—display clear evidence for intentional butchery in the form of stone-tool cutmarks. These cutmarked specimens, along with a fragment of parietal bone, are also burned. Although this evidence is consistent with cannibalism, the small sample makes it difficult to say whether or not the individuals represented by the hominin remains were butchered and cooked for consumption. Nevertheless, the cutmarked Eshkaft-e Gavi specimens add to a growing sample of hominin remains extending back into the Plio-Pleistocene that display evidence of intentional defleshing.     

Europe's first Upper Pleistocene Crocuta crocuta spelaea (Goldfuss 1823) skeleton from the Koněprusy Caves: a hyena cave prey depot site in the Bohemian Karst (Czech Republic)

One of the Europe's most complete Crocuta crocuta spelaea (Goldfuss 1823) skeletons from the Kon?prusy Caves, Bohemian Karst (Czech Republic) is an older pathological (hindlimb arthritis) and possibly smaller female individual. Few other cannibalistically scavenged hyena remains of older animals demonstrate a ‘small population’ that used the Main Dome area as a den site, which was marked well by faecal pellets. A large amount of megafauna prey was accumulated, and bones were further damaged or cracked. These hyenas hunted Przewalski horses dominantly, as has been documented all over the Bohemian Karst at several Late Pleistocene hyena den caves. The mammoth was mostly absent, instead the woolly rhinoceros was one of the meat colossi with indestructible bones also found in the Main Dome. These are the best indicators for hyena den sites identifications in general. Those massive bones found are left in repeating damaged ways and mainly as shafts and exposed best with bite marks in the bone spongiosa. Rhinoceros carcass body parts were removed by hyenas from the scavenging sites of the nearby surroundings, which they deported to the ‘prey storage den’-type site in the Main Dome area of the Kon?prusy Caves.