Strategies in the Preparation of Homochiral Compounds Using Combined Enantioselective Enzymes

In order to obtain a homochiral product from a racemic substrate, different strategies can be followed using a moderately enantioselective enzymatic catalyst. Two new strategies are presented, involving the simultaneous use of two enzymes, parallel or consecutive. In the parallel system, the substrate enantiomer yielding the unwanted product enantiomer is enantioselectively converted by the second enzyme. In the consecutive system, the substrate enantiomer yielding the desired product enantiomer is itself the preferred product of another enantioselective enzymatic reaction.

For irreversible pseudo-first order enzyme kinetics, a relationship was found which describes the dependency of the yield and enantiomeric excess for these systems on the E-values of the separate enzymes and on the ratio of their concentrations. For Michaelis-Menten kinetics, these relationships usually give good approximations.

According to these calculations, the yield and enantiomeric excess obtainable with the concepts of combined enzymes exceed significantly those obtainable with the separate enzymes, and also those obtainable with the strategy of product recirculation.     

Enzymatic Resolution of Racemates Contaminated by Racemic Product

Enzyme-catalyzed kinetic resolution is sometimes performed starting with substrate already containing small amounts of the racemic product. Then the determination of the enantiomeric ratio may be seriously disturbed when this parameter is calculated from the degree of conversion and the enantiomeric excess of either the substrate or the product (Chen et al., 1982, 1987) or when it is calculated directly from the enantiomeric excess of substrate and product (Rakels et al., 1993).

This paper presents modifications of these methods in order to correctly determine the enantiomeric ratio as well as the amount of racemic product in the substrate. The theoretical predictions were verified for the hydrolysis of racemic ethyl 2-chloropropionate, catalyzed by carboxylesterase NP. Despite the presence of racemic product in the substrate, accurate and reliable values for the enantiomeric ratio were obtained by using the modified methods.     

Chirality sensing with synthetic pores

A concept to determine enantiomeric excess with synthetic multifunctional pores is introduced. To do so, the poor stereoselectivity of molecular recognition by stimuli-responsive pores is coupled with the stereospecificity of enzymes. With substrates as good and products as poor pore blockers, enzymatic conversion of one enantiomer is shown to readily reveal the concentration of the other one. Calculations suggest that high substrate/product discrimination by the synthetic pores may provide access to the accurate detection of the extreme enantiomeric excess that is of interest in chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, but otherwise possibly problematic to detect. Validity of the introduced concept is experimentally confirmed with poly-L-glutamate and poly-D-glutamate as enantiomeric substrates with high blockage efficiency, L-glutamate and D-glutamate as enantiomeric products with poor blockage efficiency, subtilisin A as enzyme, and a classical rigid-rod beta-barrel as synthetic pore.     

(R)-oxynitrilase-catalysed synthesis of chiral silicon-containing aliphatic (R)-ketone-cyanohydrins

Optically active 2-trimethylsilyl-2-hydroxyl-ethylcyanide was prepared by enzymatic enantioselective transcyanation of acetyltrimethylsilane with acetone cyanohydrin in a biphasic system at 35°C and pH 5. (R)-Oxynitrilase from apple seed meal was the best among all the enzymes explored and diisopropyl ether was the most suitable organic phase. Acetyltrimethylsilane was a better substrate of the enzyme than its carbon analogue. The substrate conversion and product enantiomeric excess of 2-trimethylsilyl-2-hydroxyl-ethylcyanide were >99% and >99%, respectively.     

The enantioselective hydrolysis of 3-hydroxy-5-phenyl-4-pentenoicacidethylester in supercritical carbon dioxide using lipases

A new experimental high-pressure-unit was constructed for the enantioselective enzymatic hydrolysis of 3-hydroxy-5-phenyl-4-pentenoicacidethylester (a precursor for biological interesting substances) in a biphasic buffer/SCCO(2)-system. One objective is to take advantage of the solubility differences of the substrate and the produced acid. Thus the different solubilities of the substrates and the products in the different phases were studied regarding to an overall process integration. One ester enantiomer is preferably hydrolyzed, the other remains in the supercritical phase. And the produced acid enantiomer is concentrated in the buffer phase. The decrease in pressure is followed by an extraction process of the remaining substrate-enantiomer, in consequence it will be possible to combine an enzymatic reaction with a separation step. The catalysis was optimized in regard to enantioselectivity, enantiomeric excess, conversion and reaction time. A high enantioselectivity is achieved for the aromatic substrate using the lipase of Pseudomonas cepacia. The results show that this unconventional reaction system offers tremendous advantages for enzyme process development.     

A comparative molecular field analysis of the biotransformation of sulfides by Rhodococcus erythropolis

A comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) was used to model the efficacy with which the Rhodococcus erythropolis mono-oxygenase, DszC, catalyzes the enantioselective sulfoxidation of a broad range of substrates. Experimentally determined values of both the yield and enantiomeric excess for this reaction were employed to create these CoMFA models. A highly predictive CoMFA model was constructed for the prediction of enantiomeric excess of the sulfoxide product. The predictive ability of the model was demonstrated by both cross-validation of the training set (q² = 0.74) and for an external test set of substrates. The enantiomeric excesses of the members of the test set, which also included two amino acid sulfides that were structurally distinct from the membership of the training set, were predicted well by the CoMFA model. Product yield was not modelled well by any CoMFA model. Different models comparing the likely bioactive conformations of the substrates suggest that most compounds assume an ‘extended’ conformation upon binding. Contour diagrams illustrating significant substrate–enzyme interactions suggest that the model, which predicts the enantiomeric excess, is consistent with previous conclusions regarding the effect of various substrate substitutions on the enantiopurity of the product of the biotransformation.     

Immobilization of enzymes in liquid membranes for enantioselective hydrolysis

Summary The enantioselective hydrolysis of racemic 4-acetoxy-cyclopentenone by immobilized enzymes is described. Liquid membrane emulsions were used to encapsulate the enzyme. This technique combines the specific enzymatic reaction with a selective transport through the organic phase. The product (–)-4-hydroxy-cyclopentenone was produced with an enantiomeric excess of 82%. The immobilization techniques and all reaction steps, as well as a mathematical model for the complete process are discussed in this report.     

A Bioreactor-Crystallizer for L-Malic Acid Production

A bioreactor with associated crystallizer for the accumulation of a highly concentrated slurry product has been developed and investigated. The transformation of Ca-fumarate to Ca-L-malate by the action of the fumarase of immobilized Brevibacterium flavum cells focussed on the performance of this newly-devised bioreactor-crystallizer system.

The following results were obtained

(1) The fumarase reaction in the bioreactor proceeded at a rate that was first-order in apparent substrate concentration.

(2) The reaction rate increased with the addition of Na₂-fumarate to the substrate solution.

(3) The reaction rate was independent of the substrate circulation rate and the initial substrate concentration in the crystallizer.

(4) Fumarase activity of immobilized B. flavum cells was stable after 10 repeated uses over a period of 10 days.

(5) Maximum concentration of the product, final conversion ratio of the substrate and the productivity of the bioreactor-crystallizer system were much higher than those for a conventional bioreactor using solubilized Ca-fumarate as a substrate.     

Hydroxynitrile lyase catalyzed cyanohydrin synthesis at high pH-values

The application of unusual high pH-values within enzymatic cyanohydrin synthesis has been investigated. Usually enzymatic cyanohydrin synthesis in two-phase systems requires low pH-values within the aqueous phase to suppress the non-enzymatic side reaction. In contrast, we investigated the usage of pH-values above pH 6 by using the highly enantioselective (S)-selective hydroxynitrile lyase from Manihot esculenta. With these unusual reaction conditions also the unfavorable substrate 3-phenoxy-benzaldehyde can be converted by the wild type enzyme with excellent conversion and enantiomeric excess yielding pure (S)-3-phenoxy-benzaldehyde cyanohydrin with an enantiomeric excess of 97%. Although the variant MeHNL–W128A shows a higher activity with respect to this reaction, the enantioselectivity was reduced (85% e.e.(S)). Additionally, a new continuous spectroscopic cyanohydrin assay monitoring the formation of 3-phenoxy-benzaldehyde cyanohydrin was developed. Dedicated to Prof. Dr. Christian Wandrey on the occasion of his 65th birthday.     

A kinetic study of lipase-catalyzed reversible kinetic resolution involving verification at miniplant-scale

Lipase-catalyzed kinetic resolution of racemates is a popular method for synthesis of chiral synthons. Most of these resolutions are reversible equilibrium limited reactions. For the first time, an extensive kinetic model is proposed for kinetic resolution reactions, which takes into account the full reversibility of the reaction, substrate inhibition by an acyl donor and an acyl acceptor as well as alternative substrate inhibition by each enantiomer. For this purpose, the reversible enantioselective transesterification of (R/S)-1-methoxy-2-propanol with ethyl acetate catalyzed by Candida antarctica lipase B (CAL-B) is investigated. The detailed model presented here is valid for a wide range of substrate and product concentrations. Following model discrimination and the application of Haldane equations to reduce the degree of freedom in parameter estimation, the 11 free parameters are successfully identified. All parameters are fitted to the complete data set simultaneously. Six types of independent initial rate studies provide a solid data basis for the model. The effect of changes in substrate and product concentration on reaction kinetics is discussed. The developed model is used for simulations to study the behavior of reaction kinetics in a fixed bed reactor. The typical plot of enantiomeric excess versus conversion of substrate and product is evaluated at various initial substrate mixtures. The model is validated by comparison with experimental results obtained with a fixed bed reactor, which is part of a fully automated state-of-the-art miniplant.     

Activity and operational stability of immobilized mandelonitrile lyase in methanol/water mixtures

Summary The enzyme mandelonitrile lyase was covalently immobilized on solid support materials using different methods. Immobilization on porous silica using coupling with glutaraldehyde afforded preparations with high enzyme loading (up to 9% (w/w)). The immobilized enzyme was used in a packed bed reactor for the continuous production of d-mandelonitrile from benzaldehyde and cyanide. The influence of the flow rate, pH, substrate concentrations and enzyme loading on the reaction yield and the enantiomeric purity of the product was investigated. In order to suppress the competing spontaneous reaction, the enzymatic reaction must be rapid. A flow rate of 9.5 ml/min (0.1 M benzaldehyde and 0.3 M HCN) through a 3 ml reactor afforded a 86% yield of mandelonitrile with 92% enantiomeric excess. No leakage of enzyme occurred under continuous operation. One column was used continuously for 200 h without any decrease in yield or enantiomeric purity of the product. High concentrations of benzoic acid were shown to decrease the operational stability of the system.     

Enantioconvergent production of (R)-1-phenyl-1,2-ethanediol from styrene oxide by combining the Solanum tuberosum and an evolved Agrobacterium radiobacter AD1 epoxide hydrolases

Soluble epoxide hydrolase (EH) from the potato Solanum tuberosum and an evolved EH of the bacterium Agrobacterium radiobacter AD1, EchA-I219F, were purified for the enantioconvergent hydrolysis of racemic styrene oxide into the single product (R)-1-phenyl-1,2-ethanediol, which is an important intermediate for pharmaceuticals. EchA-I219F has enhanced enantioselectivity (enantiomeric ratio of 91 based on products) for converting (R)-styrene oxide to (R)-1-phenyl-1,2-ethanediol (2.0 +/- 0.2 micromol/min/mg), and the potato EH converts (S)-styrene oxide primarily to the same enantiomer, (R)-1-phenyl-1,2-ethanediol (22 +/- 1 micromol/min/mg), with an enantiomeric ratio of 40 +/- 17 (based on substrates). By mixing these two purified enzymes, inexpensive racemic styrene oxide (5 mM) was converted at 100% yield to 98% enantiomeric excess (R)-1-phenyl-1,2-ethanediol at 4.7 +/- 0.7 micromol/min/mg. Hence, at least 99% of substrate is converted into a single stereospecific product at a rapid rate.     

Directed evolution of enantioselective enzymes for organic chemistry

The production of enantiopure compounds is of steadily increasing importance to the chemical and biotechnological industries. In principal, the application of directed evolution in combination with newly developed screening methods enables the generation of enzymes with improved enantioselectivity. The first and most advanced example relates to a bacterial lipase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This enzyme was evolved towards a model substrate to yield in a lipase mutant showing > 90% enantiomeric excess as compared to 2% for the wild-type lipase. The creation of enantioselective enzymes by directed evolution will become an important technology in the near future.     

Quantitative analysis of enantioselective enzymatic hydrolysis with non-enantioselective removal of chiral products

Kinetic resolution of racemic compounds by enzymatic hydrolysis with non-enantioselective separation of enantiomer products via a separator or ion-pair formation has been quantitatively analyzed. Theoretical results indicate that the removal of chiral products has profound effects on improving the conversion and enantiomeric excess for the desired chiral substrate or product. The analysis was confirmed from lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of racemic methyl 2-chloropropionate in the presence of pyrrolidine in buffer saturated dichloromethane.     

A New Spectrophotometric Method for the Detection of Lipase Activity Using 2,4-Dinitrophenyl Butyrate as a Substrate

A rapid and sensitive assay for the detection of lipase activity is described. The method is based upon the increase in absorbance at 360 nm due to the formation of the 2,4-dinitrophenolate anion during the enzymatic hydrolysis of 2,4-dinitrophenyl butyrate. The substrate is used in an emulsified form. Using a diode array spectrophotometer with internal referencing a correction can be made for absorbance changes due to clearance of the emulsion during hydrolysis. The small reaction volume and the high extinction coefficient of the product makes the method applicable for detection of both low substrate and low enzyme concentration.

Four lipases were tested: lipase from porcine pancreas, Candida cylindracea, Pseudomonas sp. and Aspergillus niger. All enzymes are readily able to catalyse the hydrolysis of 2,4-dinitrophenyl butyrate.     

Improved Kinetic Resolution by Enzyme-Catalyzed Parallel Reactions

Competitive parallel reactions with opposite enantioselectivity are presented as a strategy to enhance the enantiomeric product purity in enzymatic kinetic resolution. Lipase-catalyzed simultaneous hydrolysis and amidation of racemic methy 12-chloropropionate led to significantly improved amide yield and enantiomeric excess. Process results can be controlled by changing the hydrolysis/amidation reaction rates through variation of the solvent and the initial amine concentration. This is described by a kinetic model.     

Disposition kinetics of ML-1035 sulfoxide enantiomers and the prochiral sulfide in rats

ML-1035, 4-amino-5-chloro-2-[2-(methylsulfinyl)ethoxy]-N-[2-(diethylamino)ethyl]benzamide, is a sulfoxide compound and a racemic gastroprokinetic agent with a chiral center at the sulfur atom. We have investigated the disposition kinetics of (R)-ML-1035 sulfoxide (R) and (S)-ML-1035 sulfoxide (S) after the single enantiomers and the racemic mixture were administered to rats in separate experiments. There was no noticeable chiral inversion after either enantiomer dose. Both enantiomers were rapidly absorbed. After dosing with enantiomers or with the racemate, the resulting plasma concentration-time curve of R was closely parallel to that of S in both intravenous and oral experiments, suggesting that the two enantiomers have approximately the same disposition kinetics. After intravenous enantiomer doses, only S underwent conversion to sulfide, suggesting that sulfidation in the liver is enantioselective. However, the enantioselective sulfidation after intravenous dosing did not introduce a difference in the global plasma disposition profiles between R and S, since the reduction reaction is a minor metabolic process. Other metabolic reactions such as sulfonation and mono-N-desethylations were not enantioselective. After oral administration, conversion to sulfide was observed for both enantioners, implicating the existence of a nonhepatic pathway in sulfidation. Administration of a prochiral sulfide dose was associated with an enantioselective sulfoxidation, in which the R/S concentration ratios increased as a function of time. In addition, enantiomeric interaction causing changes in pharmacokinetic parameters was observed after the oral racemate dose, while the interaction is negligible after an intravenous racemate dose, indicating a route dependency in enantiomeric interaction. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Enzymatic production of enantiopure ketoprofen in a solvent-free two-phase system

Enzymatic hydrolysis conducted in a medium composed of solely substrate is considered to resolve racemic ketoprofen esters. In a system composed of two components, the pure liquid substrate (organic phase) and water (aqueous phase), hydrolysis products can be efficiently removed from the reaction mixtures. Accordingly, in this study we designed a solvent-free two-phase system for the enantioselective enzymatic hydrolysis of ketoprofen esters. In order to further optimize this system, the influences of various factors, such as the pH of the aqueous phase, temperature, enzyme content, and the alcohol chain length of esters, were examined on conversion and enantiomeric excess. 1N NaHCO₃ was identified as the most efficient aqueous phase for the extraction of ketoprofen. Changes in the amount of enzyme did not significantly affect the maximum conversion or the enantiomeric excess. On the other hand, ketoprofen esters with shorter alcohol chains displayed higher initial reaction rates and conversions in solventless media. In the case of ketoprofen propyl ester, for example, the productivity of the solvent-free two-phase system was about 10–100 times higher than that obtained to date for ketoprofen esterification with alcohols in organic solvents. The enantioselectivities obtained in solvent-free media were similar to those obtained for the enantioselective esterification of ketoprofen in organic solvents.     

Immobilization of an amino acid racemase for application in crystallization‐based chiral resolutions of asparagine monohydrate

Integration of racemization and a resolution process is an attractive way to overcome yield limitations in the production of pure chiral molecules. Preferential crystallization and other crystallization‐based techniques usually produce low enantiomeric excess in solution, which is a constraint for coupling with racemization. We developed an enzymatic fixed bed reactor that can potentially overcome these unfavorable conditions and improve the overall yield of preferential crystallization. Enzyme immobilization strategies were investigated on covalent‐binding supports. The amino acid racemase immobilized in Purolite ECR 8309F with a load of 35 mg‐enzyme/g‐support showed highest specific activity (approx. 500 U/g‐support) and no loss in activity in reusability tests. Effects of substrate inhibition observed for the free enzyme were overcome after immobilization. A packed bed reactor with the immobilized racemase showed good performance in steady state operation processing low enantiomeric excess inlet. Kinetic parameters from batch reactor experiments can be successfully used for prediction of packed bed reactor performance. Full conversions could be achieved for residence times above 1.1 min. The results suggest the potential of the prepared racemase reactor to be combined with preferential crystallization to improve resolution of asparagine enantiomers.     

Mass balancing in kinetic resolution: calculating yield and enantiomeric excess using chiral balance

When kinetic resolution is applied for the production of enantiomerically pure compounds, process options may be used which involve more than one chiral substrate and one chiral product, such as sequential or parallel enzymatic kinetic resolutions or hydrolysis of diastereomers. Although the relation between the yields (y) of the chiral compounds is straightforward in these cases, the relation between their enantiomeric excess (ee) values is not. Combining mass balances into a so-called chiral balance (Sigma y . ee(R) = 0) provides the relation between enantiomeric excess values in a useful manner. This chiral balance easily shows which nonmeasured enantiomeric excess values and yields can be calculated from measured values. The chiral balance is only valid when configurations at chiral centers are conserved. (c) 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.