Trophic interference by Salmo trutta on Aplochiton zebra and Aplochiton taeniatus in southern Patagonian lakes

The length and mass ratio, diet and isotopic composition of Aplochiton zebra and Aplochiton taeniatus inhabiting a Salmo trutta‐invaded and a S. trutta‐free lake in southern Patagonia were compared. Results indicate that S. trutta exercises important trophic interference over A. zebra and A. taeniatus, causing changes in their dietary composition by reducing the consumption of winged Diptera through changes in feeding behaviours that involve jumping out of the water. This effect is significantly higher in A. zebra than in A. taeniatus a species that has a highly specialized diet. The dietary changes of A. zebra and A. taeniatus in sympatry with S. trutta lead to an impoverishment of their isotopic nitrogen signals (δ¹⁵N), suggesting a reduction of their trophic position. In the case of A. zebra, this translates into a significant decrease in its body condition factor. Such interference could lead to a population decline of this species and would explain the current distribution range decline and allopatry with S. trutta in fluvial systems.     

Infection of Myxobolus galaxii (Myxozoa) in Galaxias maculatus (Osmeriformes: Galaxiidae) from northwestern Patagonian Andean lakes (Argentina)

The infection of Myxobolus galaxii Szidat, 1953, from the musculature and abdominal organs of northwestern Patagonian Galaxias maculatus is described. Plasmodia are histozoic and intercellular. Spores are pyriform in valvar view and biconvex in sutural view, with 4-9 edge notches in the sutural line, varying in shape within the same plasmodium. Myxobolus galaxii was detected in fish from 7 of 17 Andean Patagonian lakes, with prevalences ranging between 2 and 17%. A repeating pattern of summer increment in prevalence was observed, which could be explained by the ontogenetic migratory movements of the fish in Lake Gutiérrez. Also, accumulation of plasmodia through the life span of fish was detected.     

Diel patterns in space use, food and metabolic activity of Galaxias maculatus (Pisces: Galaxiidae) in the littoral zone of a shallow Patagonian lake

We detected that Galaxias maculatus exhibits a pattern where metabolic activity increases after sunrise and peaks between noon and sunset, but this species feeds in the afternoon, until several hours after sunset. Moreover, we showed that G. maculatus is observed in the littoral zone during the day, disappears completely from this zone after sunset and returns at sunrise. Littoral prey species are common in the diet of G. maculatus, but this study showed that pelagic prey is also present during twilight and night hours in smaller individuals (<50 mm), which is related to habitat use. These behavioural rhythms are especially important for G. maculatus, which runs a high predation risk when consuming prey that is widely available outside the littoral zone. This risk is ameliorated under the protection of low light intensity. Thus, G. maculatus is a key species linking lower trophic levels, such as the plankton community, to higher levels of native and exotic piscivores. These displacements of G. maculatus generate an active flow of energy and matter between habitats, with a potentially profound effect on the entire food network and energy dynamics of the lake.     

Salinity tolerance and osmoregulatory ability of Galaxias maculatus (Jenyns) (Pisces, Salmoniformes, Galaxiidae)

The salinity tolerance and osmoregulatory ability of Galaxias maculatus were investigated. In the field this species has been recorded from salinities of less than 1‰ to 49‰. In the laboratory, upper L.D.⁵⁰ salinity values of 62‰ after gradual acclimation and 45‰ after direct transfer were established. Within the salinity range of its field occurrence the species is a powerful osmoregulator, being able both to hypo- and hyper-osmoregulate.     

Keratella distribution in North Patagonian lakes (Argentina)

The distribution of Keratella species from 15 different lakes in North Patagonia (Argentina) was analysed. The genus was not present at altitudes above 1000 m. K. tropica was restricted to Patagonian Plateau lakes with a comparatively high conductivity. A morphometric analysis of the widely distributed K. cochlearis was performed. Results showed three groups of K. cochlearis corresponding to Andean lakes, Patagonian Plateau lakes and a Patagonian Reservoir.     

Temperature effects on growing, feeding, and swimming energetics in the Patagonian blennie Eleginops maclovinus (Pisces: Perciformes)

The Patagonian blennie Eleginops maclovinus is a coastal and estuarine species, important in recreational and commercial fisheries, and with aquaculture potential. This study assessed the effect of temperature on feeding and the allocation of energy in growth and swimming in a sub-Antarctic population. For growth experiments, two groups of 8 juveniles were reared at 4 and 10?°C (corresponding to winter and summer habitat temperatures, respectively) for 3?months. Swimming experiments were conducted at 5 and 10?°C, measuring the oxygen consumption before and after forced swimming for 1?min at a speed of 10 total lengths (TL)/s. Temperature affects growth. TL increased 0.09?cm at 4?°C versus 0.30?cm at 10?°C. Body mass grew 0.49?g at 4?°C versus 1.65?g at 10?°C, whereas the Fulton’s condition factor increased 0.021 at 4?°C versus 0.080 at 10?°C. The ingested food was more than twofold higher at 10 than at 4?°C, while the feces produced at 4?°C was about twofold higher. The scope between baseline and peak oxygen consumption after forced swimming was affected by temperature, being 4.51 at 5?°C and 3.03 at 10?°C. The percentage energy expenditure until the return of baseline oxygen consumption values showed a marked temperature effect, being higher at 5?°C. We propose the existence of a trade-off in the allocation of energy between swimming activity and growth, with proportionally more energy being consumed at low temperatures for swimming than for other physiological functions like growth.     

The effect of phylogeny on interspecific body shape variation in darters (Pisces: Percidae)

We conducted a geometric morphometric analysis of interspecific body shape variation among representatives of 31 species of darters (Pisces: Percidae) to determine whether there is evidence of a phylogenetic effect in body shape variation. Cartesian transformation grids representing relative shape differences of individual species and subspecies revealed qualitative similarities within most traditionally recognized taxonomic groups (genera and subgenera). Canonical variates analysis and a UPGMA cluster analysis were conducted to explore further the relationships among body shapes of species; both analyses revealed patterns of variation consistent with the interpretation that shape is associated with taxonomic affinities. Normalized Mantel statistics revealed a significant positive association between body shape differences and phylogenetic interrelatedness for each of four recent phylogenetic hypotheses, providing evidence of a phylogenetic effect. This result is somewhat surprising, however, given the largely incompatible nature of these four phylogenies. We provide evidence that this result may be due to (1) the inclusion of multiple sets of closely related species to represent the traditionally recognized genera and subgenera within each phylogeny and/or (2) the inclusion of several species with relatively divergent shapes and their particular positions within the phylogenies relative to one another or to the other species of darters.     

Latitudinal and ecological correlates of morphological variation in Galaxias platei (Pisces, Galaxiidae) in Patagonia

We examined the morphological variability (23 morphometric traits) among individual Galaxias platei ( N  = 380) collected from 20 postglacial lakes in the southern Andes. The lakes were chosen to cover the latitudinal range of the species in Patagonia. Diet examined for a subset of these fish ( N  = 261) collected during the summer months (January through March), differed among river basins but there were no clear latitudinal trends in the consumption of any prey type. Diet may, however, have partially shaped morphology, as pelvic measures were negatively correlated with consumption of amphipods. Substantial differentiation among populations was observed, primarily in the shape and dimensions of the head, in caudal morphology and in fin length. Our results indicate that the morphology of G. platei varies with latitude, and may be related to risk of predation and diet.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 87 , 69–82.     

New cystidicolid species (Nematoda) from Galaxias platei (Osmeriformes: Galaxiidae) in Patagonian freshwater environments

During a parasitological survey of Galaxias platei Steindachner, 1898, from Patagonian Andean Lakes, a new species of Cystidicolidae was found in the stomach of fish. The new species was described using light and scanning electron microscopy; the species has characteristics of Ascarophis and is distinguishable from other species by a combination of the following features: well-developed pseudolabia with T-shaped inner extensions, bifurcate deirids, small ratio GE:ME, small left spicule, small ratio LS:RS, and larvigerous eggs with thick and fine filaments in both poles. Intraspecific variation in the morphology of larvigerous eggs was studied. This is the first species of Ascarophis described from freshwater fishes.     

Effects of ultraviolet radiation on the eggs of landlocked Galaxias maculatus (Galaxiidae, Pisces) in northwestern Patagonia

• 1 Ultraviolet radiation (UVR) damages early life stages of several fish species. Galaxias maculatus is a small catadromous fish, with landlocked forms occurring in many lakes within the Nahuel Huapi National Park (Patagonia, Argentina). In this work, the vulnerability of G. maculatus eggs exposed to both natural and artificial UVR was investigated in relation to water transparency.
• 2 Field experiments were performed in two lakes differing in UVR attenuation. Galaxias maculatus eggs were exposed to in situ levels of UVR in quartz tubes incubated at various depths. For laboratory experiments, the eggs were exposed to five levels of artificial UVB radiation.
• 3 Exposure to natural UVR causes various degrees of egg mortality depending on water transparency and incubation depth. In the less transparent lake (K_d320 = 3.08 m^‐1), almost complete mortality was observed near the surface. At a depth of 43 cm the observed mortality was only 22%, but was still significantly different from the dark control. In the most transparent lake (K_d320 = 0.438 m^‐1), almost total mortality was observed in tubes incubated at 2.56 m or shallower. A gradual decline in mortality was recorded from that depth to 3.78 m where the values approached those in the dark control treatments.
• 4 A monotonic relationship between mortality and UV exposure could be observed both in field and laboratory experiments. Using the results from field incubations, a LD₅₀ of 2.5 J cm^‐2 nm^‐1 was estimated. In a few mountain lakes, this value would be exceeded even if the eggs were laid at the maximum depth of the lake. Thus UVR seems a sufficient cause to explain the absence of G. maculatus populations in some mountain lakes. For most lakes, however, UVR is probably one of several important environmental factors, which together determine the habitat suitability.

     

Galaxitaenia toloi n. gen., n. sp. (Eucestoda: Pseudophyllidea) from Galaxias platei (Pisces: Osmeriformes, Galaxiidae), in the Patagonian region of Argentina

Galaxitaenia n. gen. (Eucestoda: Pseudophyllidea) is proposed to accommodate Galaxitaenia toloi n. gen., n. sp. from Galaxias platei, a freshwater fish inhabiting Andean lakes in Argentine Patagonia. Galaxitaenia belongs to the Triaenophoridae because it possesses a marginal genital pore, a ventral uterine pore, and a follicular vitelline gland. The new genus can be distinguished from other triaenophorids by the following combination of characters: a scolex with a prominent rectangular apical disc without hooks, grooves, or indentations; neck present; segments wider than long to quadrangular; testes in 2 lateral fields, often connected anteriorly; cirrus unarmed; an ovary situated posteriorly; a vagina posterior to the cirrus sac; vitelline follicles medullary, in 2 ventral fields forming 2 wings interrupted medially; a uterus saccate to branched; and eggs without operculum. The types, distribution, and density of microtriches were analyzed on the surface of the tegument of scolex, neck, and immature segments. The presence of tumuli were observed on the apical disc of the scolex. Galaxitaenia toloi n. sp. is the first triaenophorid species recorded in a South American freshwater fish and the fourth helminth parasitizing the intestine of G. platei.     

Plasticity of fish body shape. The effects of diet, development, family and age in two species of Geophagus (Pisces: Gichlidae)

Fish body shape is affected by the genetic makeup of an individual as well as environmental influences, such as diet, development, growth rate and nutrition. Fishes in the family Cichlidae exhibit tremendous morphological diversity in body shape and morphology related to feeding. Certain aspects of cichlid feeding morphology have been shown to be plastic in response to different diets but plasticity in body shape has not been examined previously. Plasticity affects ecological interactions, the direction and rate of evolution, and has ramifications for characters used in systematic studies. I examined the effect of different diets: chironomid larvae (bloodworms) and brine shrimp nauplii, on body shape in two species of the Neotropical cichlid genus Geophagus which differ in the size at which young begin feeding on external food sources. The fry of G. brasiliensis , a substrate spawner, begin to feed on external food sources earlier than the fry of G. steindachneri , a mouthbrooder. I hypothesized that the difference in size at first feeding could lead to a difference in the amount of plasticity inducible in the two species. The magnitudes of changes were mostly similar, although G. brasiliensis responded to the different diets with slightly greater changes in some of the head measurements. The pattern of changes in the two species were also similar, with fish fed ferine shrimp nauplii developing longer and shallower heads and shallower bodies and tails than fish fed chironomid larvae. I also examined the consequences of considering family and age as additional factors besides diet in G. steindachneri. Considering family or age as additional factors in the analyses did not change the conclusion that different diets induce differences, albeit small ones, in body shape. I argue that morphological plasticity is dependent on behavioural flexibility and that it may enhance evolutionary morphological diversification.     

Reproduction in puyen, Galaxias maculatus (Pisces: Galaxiidae), in the southernmost extreme of distribution

Reproductive aspects of a peripheral population of Galaxias maculatus are described and the relationship with the physiology and handling of energetic reserves under marginal environmental conditions is investigated. The G. maculatus population of Tierra del Fuego has an extended reproductive season, with differences in timing and duration compared to other populations of continental Patagonia, New Zealand and Australia. Elevated gonadosomatic indexes (I_G) were observed during this period in both sexes (maximum I_G = 33.49% males; 35.94% females). The high abundance of mature males (with high I_G values) on the spawning grounds during the reproductive season suggests that they were waiting for the return of the mature females. Larger females reached total maturation at the beginning of the reproductive season, whereas the size of maturing females diminished toward the end (mean TL = 96 mm, October; 70 mm, February). Both sexes showed an extremely high investment in reproduction, reaching a maximum I_G of about 35% for both sexes. At the beginning of the reproductive season females reached the maximum median I_H (3.37%) and males the minimum (0.96%), suggesting differences in the role of the liver in the management of energetic reserves during sexual maturation. The variation in the fat index (I_F) suggests that fat reserves were used to survive winter (maximum median I_F > 1%, autumn; minimum about 0.2%, spring).     

Larval development of the Patagonian brotula Cataetyx messieri (Pisces, Bythitidae) from fjords of southern Chile

Larvae of Cataetyx messieri (Bythitidae) are described from 14 individuals (12·3–27·9 mm body length) collected in deep fjords and channels of the inland sea of southern Chile (41–55° S), between 137 and 604 m depth. The larvae are elongate, with a large, flattened mouth and a coiled gut. They are lightly pigmented and show three distinctive features: a band of melanophores from the snout to the opercle, melanophores spread over the dorsolateral surface of the stomach and the intestine and a band of melanophores on both dorsal and ventral margins of the tip of the tail and adjacent finfold.     

Infection patterns of Tylodelphys barilochensis and T. crubensis (Trematoda: Diplostomatidae) metacercariae in Galaxias maculatus (Osmeriformes: Galaxiidae) from two Patagonian lakes and observations on their geographical distribution in the southern Andean region,Argentina

In the Patagonian Andean region, 2 species of diplostomatids parasitize the brains of Galaxias maculatus.The purpose of this study was to evaluate seasonal variation, spatial variation, and association with host age in the transmission of Tylodelphys barilochensis and T. crubensis in several oligotrophic lakes in Argentinian Patagonia. Fishes were captured monthly in Lake Gutiérrez and bimonthly in Lake Escondido. One summer or autumn sample was also taken in several other Patagonian lakes. Infection parameters were calculated and compared using nonparametric tests. The 2 species co-occurred in most of the sampled lakes, with high values of prevalence and mean intensity. In Lake Gutiérrez and Lake Escondido, the intensity of both diplostomatid species did not show significant differences between sexes and co-varied with host length. All age classes were infected; maximum prevalence values were reached before maximum mean intensity values in the 1-yr age class. A seasonal pattern of prevalence and mean intensity of the 2 parasite species with autumn mean intensity values differing significantly from those of the other seasons was evident only in Lake Gutiérrez.     

Mitochondrial and Allozyme Genetics of Incipient Speciation in a Landlocked Population of Galaxias Truttaceus (Pisces: Galaxiidae)

Galaxias truttaceus is found in coastal rivers and streams in south-eastern Australia. It spawns at the head of estuaries in autumn and the larvae spend 3 months of winter at sea before returning to fresh water. In Tasmania there are landlocked populations of G. truttaceus in a cluster of geologically young lakes on the recently glaciated Central Plateau. These populations have no marine larval stage and spawn in the lakes in spring. Speciation due to land locking is thought to be a frequent occurrence within Galaxias. To investigate the nature of the speciation event which may be occurring within lake populations of G. truttaceus we studied the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and allozyme diversity of both lake and stream populations. Using the presence or absence of restriction sites recognized by 13 six-base restriction endonucleases, we found 58 mtDNA haplotypes among 150 fish collected from 13 Tasmanian and one south-east Australian mainland stream populations. The most parsimonious network relating the haplotypes by site loss or gain was starlike in shape. We argue that this arrangement is best explained by selection upon slightly beneficial mutations within the mitochondrial genome. Gene diversity analysis under Wright's island model showed that the populations in each drainage were not genetically subdivided. Only two of these stream haplotypes were found among the 66 fish analyzed from four lake populations. Despite the extreme lack of mtDNA diversity in lake populations, the observed nuclear DNA heterozygosity of 40 lake fish (0.10355) was only slightly less than that of 82 stream fish (0.11635). In the short time (3000-7000 years) that the lake fish have been landlocked, random genetic drift in a finite, stable-sized population was probably not responsible for the lack of mtDNA diversity in the lake populations. We infer the lake populations have probably experienced at least one, severe, but transitory bottleneck possibly induced by natural selection for life-history characters essential for survival in the lacustrine habitat. If speciation is occurring in the landlocked populations of G. truttaceus, then it may be driven by genetic transilience.     

Multivariate analysis of the phenotypic relationships of the species of Paragalaxias and Galaxias (Pisces: Galaxiidae) in Tasmania

The 10 species of Galaxias in Tasmania, G. olidus from mainland Australia and the four species of Paragalaxias were studied using principal co-ordinates analysis (PCOA) and cluster analysis of a standardized Euclidean distance matrix based upon variate means, and by canonical variate analysis (CVA) conducted as a stepwise multiple discriminant analysis. Thirty-five variables comprising 30 morphometric and five meristic characters were analysed. The meristic characters were not included in the CVA. Excellent separation of the two genera was achieved in all analyses. The multivariate analyses were repeated on each genus separately to see if relationships suggested by the overall analysis remain stable. When the resultant groupings of species are compared for the different analyses, no consistent, distinct groupings of species within each genus are apparent. Despite the absence of distinct groupings, some trends in the affinities of some species are evident. In particular, species affinities as indicated by the CVA are more consistent with established opinions of species relationships. From the results of the study it is suggested that caution be exercised in the application of multivariate statistical analyses of morphological data to ichthyological systematics and phylogeny.