The cladistics and biology of the Callajoppa genus-group (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae, Ichneumoninae)

A cladistic analysis is presented for the genera of the former ichneumonine tribe Trogini. The tribe Heresiarchini is paraphyletic with respect to the Trogini, and so maintaining Trogini as a separate tribe is unsatisfactory. Within Heresiarchini, the following changes are made: (a) the subtribes Apatetorina and Heresiarchina are referred to as the Apatetor and Heresiarches genus‐groups, (b) the genera of the paraphyletic subtribe Protichneumonina are treated as incerta sedis within Heresiarchini, and (c) the Trogini are referred to as the Callajoppa genus‐group, with the former subtribe Trogina referred to as the Trogus subgroup. Thirty‐five genera are recognized as valid within the Callajoppa genus‐group. Catadelphops, Catadelphus, Cobunus, and Facydes are transferred to this group; Holojoppa is removed and is incertae sedis within Heresiarchini. Three new synonyms are proposed: Araeoscelis and Cryptopyge are junior synonyms of Macrojoppa, and Neamblyjoppa is a junior synonym of Catadelphops. Trogus latipennis Cresson is transferred to Pedinopelte from Macrojoppa, and Trogus mactator Tosquinet and its related species (T. bicolor Radoszkowski, T. heinrichi Uchida, and T. tricephalus Uchida) are transferred to Holcojoppa. Tricyphus is redefined and a neotype is designated for Tricyphus cuspidiger Kriechbaumer, the type‐species of the genus. Thirteen new genera are described (authorship of all is Wahl & Sime): Charmedia (type‐species: Charmedia chavarriai Wahl & Sime, sp. n.) , Daggoo (type‐species: Daggoo philoctetes Wahl & Sime, sp. n.), Dothenia (type‐species: Dothenia hansoni Wahl & Sime, sp. n.), Humbert (type‐species: Humbert humberti Wahl & Sime, sp. n.), Laderrica (type‐species: Laderrica feenyi Wahl & Sime, sp. n.), Mokajoppa (type‐species: Tricyphus respinozai Ward & Gauld), Metallichneumon (type‐species: Metallichneumon neurospastarchus Wahl & Sime, sp. n.), Myocious (type‐species: Myocious orientalis Wahl & Sime, sp. n.) , Quandrus (type‐species: Trogus pepsoides Smith, transferred from Callajoppa), Queequeg (type‐species: Gathetus flavibasalis Uchida, transferred from Neofacydes), Saranaca (type‐species: Trogus elegans Cresson; includes Trogus apicalis Cresson, Tricyphyus ater Hopper, and Tricyphus floridanus Heinrich), Tashtego (type‐species: Tashtego janzeni Wahl & Sime, sp. n.), and Xanthosomnium (type‐species: Xanthosomnium froesei Wahl & Sime, sp. n.). A key to the genera of the Callajoppa genus‐group is provided. The evolution of biological traits within the Callajoppa genus‐group is discussed with reference to the elucidated phylogeny. The groundplan biology is parasitism of Sphingidae, with oviposition into a host pupa/prepupa. There have been two transitions to butterfly parasitism within the Trogus subgroup: one a transition to Papilionidae (followed by a switch to Nymphalidae at Psilomastax) and the other to Nymphalidae (followed by a switch to Papilionidae within Macrojoppa). ©2002 The Linnean Society of London. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 134 , 1–56.     

The challenges of documenting coevolution and niche construction: The example of domestic spaces

This essay delves into some of the challenges of studying the coevolution of humans and domestic spaces. These constructed arenas center on food preparation, and as part of the heritable niche they can shift the opportunities for, and constraints on, social interaction and cooperation in evolutionary time. Domestic spaces are widely evidenced in the archeological record, but investigators have made little progress in demonstrating causal links between proposed feedback spirals and constructed spaces of any sort. Bridging fine‐scale and large‐scale processes in coevolutionary systems is a complex problem that must engage higher levels of generative evolutionary theory. Archaeology nonetheless stands to offer a great deal to larger research programs by documenting and analyzing the pathways of change based on site formation processes along with evidence from subsistence refuse and technology. Choice models remain valuable tools for investigating aspects of the fine‐scale feedback processes involved.     

Informing the Green Consumer: The Debate Over the Use and Abuse of Environmental Labels

Third-party environmental labeling programs continue to develop around the world. They are being increasingly challenged at the policy level, however; by a well-organized industry opposition claiming that the labels do not identify environmentally superior goods and are subject to abuse as protectionist trade barriers. Ecolabels' effectiveness in the marketplace still has not been empirically proven, although industry interest remains high and in certain cases labels appear to have influenced product design. There is little empirical evidence labels have acted as trade barriers, and negotiations within the World Trade Organization are stalemated. The International Organization for Standardization is developing standards for ecolabeling programs that may influence their status under intemational trade law. The Forest Stewardship Council, a nongovernmental umbrella group certifying sustainably harvested timber; remains the leader in this sector of resource labels. Intense industry interest in environmental labels likely arises out of fear that labels will be used as protectionist nontarifftrade barriers and, more important that label criteria will be adopted as the basis for government public procurement programs.     

The evolution of high summit metabolism and cold tolerance in birds and its impact on present-day distributions

Summit metabolic rate ( M_sum , maximum cold-induced metabolic rate) is positively correlated with cold tolerance in birds, suggesting that high M_sum is important for residency in cold climates. However, the phylogenetic distribution of high M_sum among birds and the impact of its evolution on current distributions are not well understood. Two potential adaptive hypotheses might explain the phylogenetic distribution of high M_sum among birds. The cold adaptation hypothesis contends that species wintering in cold climates should have higher M_sum than species wintering in warmer climates. The flight adaptation hypothesis suggests that volant birds might be capable of generating high M_sum as a byproduct of their muscular capacity for flight; thus, variation in M_sum should be associated with capacity for sustained flight, one indicator of which is migration. We collected M_sum data from the literature for 44 bird species and conducted both conventional and phylogenetically informed statistical analyses to examine the predictors of M_sum variation. Significant phylogenetic signal was present for log body mass, log mass-adjusted M_sum , and average temperature in the winter range. In multiple regression models, log body mass, winter temperature, and clade were significant predictors of log M_sum . These results are consistent with a role for climate in determining M_sum in birds, but also indicate that phylogenetic signal remains even after accounting for associations indicative of adaptation to winter temperature. Migratory strategy was never a significant predictor of log M_sum in multiple regressions, a result that is not consistent with the flight adaptation hypothesis.     

Science as Ideology: The Rejection and Reception of Sociobiology in China

The spread of sociobiology in China is not simply an internal event in the development of science. From the day it was introduced to China, its destiny was closely bound up with the development and change of Chinese society. Although it did not create as great disturbance as in America, it did have a significant impact in academic circles. However, scholars have paid little attention to these historical events. Today, sociobiology seems outdated and Wilson's grand agenda seems to have faded with the passing of time, but the mark that he made on the history of science is still striking. A review of the process of reception of sociobiology in China is helpful for understanding this theory as well as the society of China.     

The waiting game: a "battle of waits" between predator and prey

Many prey respond to the presence of a predator by retreatinginto a shell or burrow, or by taking refuge in some other waythat guarantees their safety but restricts further informationfrom being obtained about the predator's continued presence.When this occurs, the individual predator and prey involvedbecome opponents in a "waiting game." The prey must decide howlong to wait for the predator to depart before re-emerging andpotentially exposing itself to attack. The predator must decidehow long to wait for the prey to re-emerge before departingin search of other foraging opportunities. I use a numericalapproach to determine the evolutionarily stable waiting strategyof both players and examine the effects of various parameterson the ESS. The model predicts that each player's waiting distribution—thedistribution of waiting times one would expect to observe forindividuals in that role—will have a characteristic shape:the predator's distribution should resemble a negative exponentialfunction, whereas the waiting time of the prey is predictedto be more variable and follow a positively skewed distribution.The model also predicts that very little overlap will occurbetween the players' waiting distributions, and that the predatorwill rarely outwait the prey. Empirical studies relating tothe model and comparisons between the waiting game and the asymmetricwar of attrition are discussed.     

树鼩资源的开发利用与标准化研究——我国实验动物资源建设发展战略探讨

树鼩（Tupaia belangeri）作为人类疾病动物模型,被应用于人类医学实验研究的多个领域,如各种类型的病毒性肝炎模型,流感病毒、登革热病毒、轮状病毒、疱疹病毒模型,糖尿病、胆结石、癌症病模型。但是,目前我国用于实验研究的树鼩几乎全都来自野外,对它们的微生物学、寄生虫学、遗传学、环境学等质量标准没有进行控制,它们本身携带的许多病原体会对实验结果的准确性造成影响,这既不符合国家对实验动物许可证管理的要求,也不利于我国实验动物科技工作与国际接轨的发展要求。因此,应该同步开展树鼩资源的开发利用和标准研究,使之纳入实验动物许可证的有效监控和管理,改变目前使用在前、质量控制标准研究在后的被动局面。     

Genesis of phenotypic and genotypic diversity in land plants: The present as the key to the past

The evolutionary history of vascular plants is reviewed by extrapolation back through time from a wide range of data recently derived from the present flora, using as the central theme evolutionary inferences gained from phylogenies reconstructed as cladograms. Any region of the genome can be used to infer relationships, but only a combination of knowledge of morphology and the developmental genes that underpin morphology can allow evolutionary interpretation of macroevolutionary transitions; this in turn is necessary to identify bona fide evolutionary radiations and any putative causal key innovations. Such studies require clades to be delimited not by the inclusion of particular extant ‘crown’ species but rather by specific apo‐morphies, thereby giving important phylogenetic roles to extinct as well as extant species. Dating phylogenetic divergences via molecular clocks remains seriously inaccurate, and ultimately relies primarily on fossil benchmarks. First principles suggest that evolution of most regions of the genome is fundamentally gradual, whereas evolution of regions especially prone to strong selection pressure, and of the many facets of the phenotype, is punctuational, being characterized through time dominantly by stasis. Sequence data have proved valuable for inferring monophyletic groups, but within the now widely accepted context of monophyly the taxonomic hierarchy should primarily reflect degrees of morphological rather than molecular divergence. Incongruence among contrasting data sets is best explained by understanding the biological constraints operating on each type of phylogenetic information. The conventional ‘uniformitarian’ view of evolution has only limited applicability as one traces the history of land plants through time. Diversity increased in stepwise fashion, reflecting either attainments of complexity and/or fitness thresholds by the lineage (intrinsic) or the availability of unusually permissive environments, often following major perturbations (extrinsic). The Quaternary period demonstrates especially well the resilience, and ease of migration, of the Earth's vegetation. A higher frequency of generation of novel phenotypes in the deep past is possible, but a far higher frequency of their establishment is certain; together, these factors generate an evolutionary pattern of nested radiations that is fractal, as saturation of the resource space rendered the environment decreasingly permissive through time. In the immediate future, evolutionary‐developmental genetics will have increasing value for testing homology, interpreting homoplasy and elucidating evolutionary constraints, and will become easier to pursue as whole‐genome sequences of additional ‘model’ species further invigorate comparative genomics. Complexity of gene regulation, both by other genes and by the cellular and extra‐cellular environment, appears a particularly fruitful area for further research. Nonetheless, environmental filtering of evolutionary novelties (whether instantaneously isolated mutant ‘prospecies’ or classic neoDarwinian ‘selfish genes’ selectively spreading through panmictic populations) can only be effectively understood by longer term monitoring of populations in the wild, to better capture rare evolutionary and ecological events and to better assess the efficacy of traditional microevolutionary processes. We believe that the resulting renaissance in macroevolutionary studies will encourage a broader systematic perspective ‐ one that better encompasses the remarkable diversity of evolutionary processes that together generated the present diversity of life.