Conservation of biodiversity in Scandinavian boreal forests: large carnivores as flagships, umbrellas, indicators, or keystones?

Large carnivores are often used as focal species (indicators, umbrellas, flagships or keystones) in conservation strategies either aimed at conserving carnivores, the rest of the biodiversity that occupies their habitats, or both. We evaluate their suitability for these roles in the context of boreal forest biodiversity conservation in the muti-use landscapes of Scandinavia. The enormous conflicts, especially with livestock, that carnivores cause in these areas makes them very controversial flagships to the extent that it may affect rural people's attitudes to conservation in general. Because of the broad habitat tolerance of large carnivores and their prey, and the difficulties in surveying carnivore numbers, they are very insensitive and impractical indicators of forest biodiversity. This ability of large carnivores to thrive in industrial forests means that the many species that are sensitive to modern forestry will not fall under the umbrella of areas managed for large carnivores. If large carnivores have a keystone function with respect to affecting the density of their ungulate prey it is likely to lead to even further conflicts with hunters who gain economic benefit from harvesting wild ungulates. In other words, none of the classic `ecological' arguments are likely to help justify large carnivore conservation, and large carnivore conservation is unlikely to help conserve the rest of the boreal forest's biodiversity. Based on these arguments we recommend that (1) justification for large carnivore conservation focus on the real philosophical and value orientated reasons rather than ecological justifications, (2) that this conservation should be brought about in practice by dedicated management programs that specifically address the conflicts caused by large carnivores, and (3) that boreal forest biodiversity is best conserved by specific actions designed to establish reserves or change forestry practices.     

Dietary preference of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in south‐eastern Kenya

The conversion of natural ecosystems due to anthropogenic activities has led to the destruction of natural habitats and to the deterioration of habitat quality. Top predators particularly respond sensitively to changes in habitat structures, including the availability of prey. The cheetah Acinonyx jubatus prefers small‐medium‐sized, wild ungulate prey due to the cheetah''s morphological adaptations. However, the majority of the species’ population is found beyond protected areas, where habitat structures, species abundances, and community composition are highly influenced by human activities. Only few studies have analyzed the diet preference of cheetahs in relation to prey availability and abundance for rangelands beyond protected areas in Eastern Africa. The study aimed to determine cheetah prey preference in the rangelands of south‐eastern Kenya based on scat analyses. We compared dietary preference of cheetah with prey availability. For this purpose, we conducted standardized game counts. We analyzed 27 cheetah scat samples collected across the same study area where we also conducted game counts. We found that Grant''s gazelle Gazella granti contributed the highest portion of cheetah''s diet, although Thomson''s gazelle Gazella thomsonii was the most abundant medium‐sized ungulate prey in the study areas. We also recorded two primate species, yellow baboon Papio cynocephalus and vervet monkey Chlorocebus pygerythrus, as well as the rock hyrax Procavia capensis in the cheetah diet. These species have never been documented as cheetah prey before. Furthermore, our results document livestock as potential prey for cheetahs. These observations underline that cheetah use diverse prey in rangelands outside protected areas, and that the abundance of specific prey does not influence cheetah prey preference.     

Could we live with reintroduced large carnivores in the UK?

1. Literature on the wolf Canis lupus, brown bear Ursus arctos and lynx Lynx lynx is reviewed to determine if sufficient semi‐natural habitat exists in the UK for a viable population of any of these species and to assess the potential risks to human safety, livestock and economically valuable wildlife. Public attitudes to the recovery and reintroduction of some other mammals are also briefly reviewed. 2. The large home range sizes and low population densities of large carnivores mean that the Scottish Highlands is the only UK region with the potential to support a viable population. Human population density is also lower in the Highlands and the density of wild ungulate prey higher than in many parts of Europe where large carnivores survive. 3. Attacks on people have been recorded in Europe for healthy bears and for rabid bears and wolves but there are no reports of attacks by lynx. Bears are more carnivorous in the north of their range than in the south and although wild mammals seldom appear to be important prey serious predation of livestock can occur. Livestock predation is also reported for the wolf and the lynx but they appear to prefer wild prey if available. However, mass kills of up to 100 or more sheep are occasionally recorded for wolves. 4. Attitudes to reintroductions and carnivores generally tend to be favourable amongst the general public, but negative amongst those most likely to be adversely affected. Fears for human safety and significant livestock predation with bears and wolves, respectively, suggest that reintroduction of these species is unlikely to be acceptable in the foreseeable future. Reintroduction of the lynx may be feasible but habitat suitability and potential impact on vulnerable native wildlife need to be assessed. Socio‐economic and legal issues also need to be addressed before such a reintroduction is considered.     

Topcats and underdogs: intraguild interactions among three apex carnivores across Asia's forestscapes

Intraguild interactions among carnivores have long held the fascination of ecologists. Ranging from competition to facilitation and coexistence, these interactions and their complex interplay influence everything from species persistence to ecosystem functioning. Yet, the patterns and pathways of such interactions are far from understood in tropical forest systems, particularly across countries in the Global South. Here, we examined the determinants and consequences of competitive interactions between dholes Cuon alpinus and the two large felids (leopards Panthera pardus and tigers Panthera tigris) with which they most commonly co-occur across Asia. Using a combination of traditional and novel data sources (N = 118), we integrate information from spatial, temporal, and dietary niche dimensions. These three species have faced catastrophic declines in their extent of co-occurrence over the past century; most of their source populations are now confined to Protected Areas. Analysis of dyadic interactions between species pairs showed a clear social hierarchy. Tigers were dominant over dholes, although pack strength in dholes helped ameliorate some of these effects; leopards were subordinate to dholes. Population-level spatio-temporal interactions assessed at 25 locations across Asia did not show a clear pattern of overlap or avoidance between species pairs. Diet-profile assessments indicated that wild ungulate biomass consumption by tigers was highest, while leopards consumed more primate and livestock prey as compared to their co-predators. In terms of prey offtake (ratio of wild prey biomass consumed to biomass available), the three species together harvested 0.4–30.2% of available prey, with the highest offtake recorded from the location where the carnivores reach very high densities. When re-examined in the context of prey availability and offtake, locations with low wild prey availability showed spatial avoidance and temporal overlap among the carnivore pairs, and locations with high wild prey availability showed spatial overlap and temporal segregation. Based on these observations, we make predictions for 40 Protected Areas in India where temporally synchronous estimates of predator and prey densities are available. We expect that low prey availability will lead to higher competition, and in extreme cases, to the complete exclusion of one or more species. In Protected Areas with high prey availability, we expect intraguild coexistence and conspecific competition among carnivores, with spill-over to forest-edge habitats and subsequent prey-switching to livestock. We stress that dhole–leopard–tiger co-occurrence across their range is facilitated through an intricate yet fragile balance between prey availability, and intraguild and conspecific competition. Data gaps and limitations notwithstanding, our study shows how insights from fundamental ecology can be of immense utility for applied aspects like large predator conservation and management of human–carnivore interactions. Our findings also highlight potential avenues for future research on tropical carnivores that can broaden current understanding of intraguild competition in forest systems of Asia and beyond.     

Fear, human shields and the redistribution of prey and predators in protected areas

Protected areas form crucial baselines to judge ecological change, yet areas of Africa, Asia and North America that retain large carnivores are under intense economic and political pressures to accommodate massive human visitation and attendant infrastructure. An unintended consequence is the strong modulation of the three-way interaction involving people, predators and prey, a dynamic that questions the extent to which animal distributions and interactions are independent of subtle human influences. Here, I capitalize on the remarkable 9-day synchronicity in which 90% of moose neonates in the Yellowstone Ecosystem are born, to demonstrate a substantive change in how prey avoid predators; birth sites shift away from traffic-averse brown bears and towards paved roads. The decade-long modification was associated with carnivore recolonization, but neither mothers in bear-free areas nor non-parous females altered patterns of landscape use. These findings offer rigorous support that mammals use humans to shield against carnivores and raise the possibility that redistribution has occurred in other mammalian taxa due to human presence in ways we have yet to anticipate. To interpret ecologically functioning systems within parks, we must now also account for indirect anthropogenic effects on species distributions and behaviour.     

Landscape of fear in Europe: wolves affect spatial patterns of ungulate browsing in Białowieża Primeval Forest,Poland

Large carnivores can either directly influence ungulate populations or indirectly affect their behaviour. Knowledge from European systems, in contrast to North American systems, on how this might lead to cascading effects on lower trophic levels is virtually absent. We studied whether wolves Canis lupus via density‐mediated and behaviorally‐mediated effects on their ungulate prey species influence patterns of browsing and tree regeneration inside the Bia?owie?a National Park, Poland. Browsing intensity of tree saplings (height class < 150 cm), irrespective of tree species or forest type, was lower inside a wolf core area (50.5%) where predator presence is highest, than in the remainder of the wolf pack’s home range (58.3%). Additionally, browsing intensity was reduced when the amount of coarse woody debris (CWD), which can act as a ?ungulate escape impediment?, increased (within 5‐m radius) inside the wolf core area. No relationship existed outside the core area. As a result, the proportion of trees growing out of herbivore control increased more strongly with increasing amount of CWD inside compared to outside the wolf core area. This suggests that next to direct effects of wolves on ungulate density caused by a higher predation pressure inside the core area, risk effects are important and are enhanced by habitat characteristics. These results indicate that behaviorally‐mediated effects of predators on prey can become more important than density‐mediated effects in affecting lower trophic levels. This is the first study we are aware of, that shows CWD can create fine‐scale risk effects on ungulates with the potential for cascading effects of large predators on patterns of tree regeneration for a European forest system. This knowledge broadens the discussion on how the impact of large predators on ecosystem functioning depends on the physical landscape, by illustrating these effects for a system which largely contrasts in this respect to the North American systems.     

The cost of migratory prey: seasonal changes in semi‐domestic reindeer distribution influences breeding success of Eurasian lynx in northern Norway

Migratory prey is a widespread phenomenon that has implications for predator–prey interactions. By creating large temporal variation in resource availability between seasons it becomes challenging for carnivores to secure a regular year‐round supply of food. Some predators may respond by following their migratory prey, however, most predators are sedentary and experience strong seasonal variation in resource availability. Increased predation on alternative prey may dampen such seasonal resource fluctuations, but reduced reproduction rates in predators is a predicted consequence of migratory primary prey behavior that has received little empirical attention. We used data from 23 GPS collared Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx monitored during 2007–2013 in northern Norway, to examine how spatio‐temporal variation in the migratory behavior of semi‐domestic reindeer Rangifer tarandus influences lynx spatial organization and reproductive success using estimates of seasonal home range overlap and breeding success. We found that lynx of both sexes maintained seasonally stable home ranges and exhibited site fidelity across years, independent of whether they had access to reindeer throughout the year or experienced a scarcity of reindeer in winter due to migration. However, lynx without access to reindeer in winter showed a decreased probability of reproducing and a tendency for lowered kitten survival into their first winter, when compared to female lynx with reindeer available year around. This supports the hypothesis that sedentary predators experience demographic costs in systems with migratory primary prey. Changes in the migratory behavior of ungulates, including disrupted migrations, is therefore likely to have bottom–up effects on the population dynamics of sedentary predators as well as the previously documented consequences for ungulate population dynamics.     

Fluctuating ungulate density shapes tree recruitment in natural stands of the Białowieża Primeval Forest,Poland

Question: What are the main driving factors in 70 years of natural dynamics in tree recruitment in the Bia?owie?a National Park? Location: Bia?owie?a National Park, Poland, is one of the least disturbed temperate, lowland forest systems in Europe. Methods: We tested whether fluctuations in large herbivore populations, changes in climate and openness of the forest explained compositional dynamics. Tree recruitment (to size class DBH≥5 cm) was measured on permanent transects (in total, 14.9 ha) six times between 1936‐2002. These data were related to existing data on ungulate density, climatic parameters and estimates of forest openness collected during the same period. Results: Total recruitment of all tree species combined was negatively correlated with total ungulate density and red deer density. The variation in response between species was related to the preferences of herbivores; the more preferred forage species (especially Carpinus betulus) were positively and the less preferred species negatively related to herbivore density. Total tree recruitment rates were not related to climatic parameters and openness of the forest. Only Alnus glutinosa recruitment was significantly related to climatic parameters, and Ulmus glabra related to forest openness, but there were no predictable patterns in recruitment among species in relation to these factors. Conclusion: The present study indicated that changes in large herbivore density have played an important role in driving patterns in tree recruitment and species composition during the last 70 years in Bia?owie?a National Park. In contrast to other studies, increasing herbivore numbers were associated with higher recruitment of preferred and browsing‐tolerant species. Periodical crashes in ungulate numbers, whether human‐induced or caused by natural factors, may offer windows of opportunity for regeneration of a range of tree species and facilitate more diverse and dynamic forest development.     

Predator-prey size relationships in an African large-mammal food web

1. Size relationships are central in structuring trophic linkages within food webs, leading to suggestions that the dietary niche of smaller carnivores is nested within that of larger species. However, past analyses have not taken into account the differing selection shown by carnivores for specific size ranges of prey, nor the extent to which the greater carcass mass of larger prey outweighs the greater numerical representation of smaller prey species in the predator diet. Furthermore, the top-down impact that predation has on prey abundance cannot be assessed simply in terms of the number of predator species involved. 2. Records of found carcasses and cause of death assembled over 46 years in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, corrected for under-recording of smaller species, enabled a definitive assessment of size relationships between large mammalian carnivores and their ungulate prey. Five carnivore species were considered, including lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), and 22 herbivore prey species larger than 10 kg in adult body mass. 3. These carnivores selectively favoured prey species approximately half to twice their mass, within a total prey size range from an order of magnitude below to an order of magnitude above the body mass of the predator. The three smallest carnivores, i.e. leopard, cheetah and wild dog, showed high similarity in prey species favoured. Despite overlap in prey size range, each carnivore showed a distinct dietary preference. 4. Almost all mortality was through the agency of a predator for ungulate species up to the size of a giraffe (800-1200 kg). Ungulates larger than twice the mass of the predator contributed substantially to the dietary intake of lions, despite the low proportional mortality inflicted by predation on these species. Only for megaherbivores substantially exceeding 1000 kg in adult body mass did predation become a negligible cause of mortality. 5. Hence, the relative size of predators and prey had a pervasive structuring influence on biomass fluxes within this large-mammal food web. Nevertheless, the large carnivore assemblage was dominated overwhelmingly by the largest predator, which contributed the major share of animals killed across a wide size range.     

The forgotten prey of an iconic predator: a review of interactions between grey wolves Canis lupus and beavers Castor spp.

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The potential of large carnivores as conservation surrogates in the Romanian Carpathians

Conservation shortcuts such as umbrella species have been long used for regional protection of species whose distributions are poorly known. Although the European large carnivores—brown bear, gray wolf, and Eurasian lynx—might seem to be robust candidates as umbrella species, their actual effectiveness has been challenged. We used 10-km resolution distribution maps of mammals (n = 10) and birds (n = 55) of European conservation concern in the Romanian Carpathians, and a temporal sequence of land cover maps (1990, 2000, and 2006) to examine: (1) the spatial overlap in distribution between large carnivores and bird and mammal species of conservation concern, (2) changes in forest cover for the Romanian Carpathians during the post-communist period in relation to the distribution of species, and (3) priority conservation areas using carnivores as umbrella species. Approximately 55% of the bird and 80% of mammals species included in this study would potentially benefit from using large carnivores as conservation surrogates. The changes in forest cover during 1990–2006 were concentrated in the Eastern Carpathians, where up to 45% of the forest per mapping unit was clearcut during the study period. Implicitly, the areas of occupancy of the background species were most disturbed by clearcutting in the Eastern Carpathians. We propose that the large carnivores could act temporary as umbrella species in areas that are still relatively undisturbed, such as Southern and Southwestern Carpathians. This alternative conservation strategy will allow time for (1) the new established protected areas to start efficiently and (2) the forestry practices to switch from mostly uncontrolled clearcutting, lacking landscape scale management to ecologically-based practices.     

Non-linear relationship between body size of terrestrial carnivores and their trophic niche breadth and overlap

Studying food partitioning of mammalian predators is important for understanding trophic structures and interactions between coexisting carnivore species. This is particularly pertinent in the light of expanding ranges of populations of generalist species whose habitat and diet overlap with more specialized species. Here, we tested the resource partitioning hypothesis in terrestrial carnivores, predicting that trophic niche breadth and overlap relate positively to body mass. We used dietary data from 18 terrestrial carnivore taxa in four families (Canidae, Mustelidae, Felidae and Ursidae; body mass 0.1–173.6 kg) in three regions in Central and Eastern Europe, i.e. deciduous forest and forest-steppe region (DFR), temperate deciduous and mixed forest region (MFR) and transitory mixed forest regions (TFR). We ranked carnivores along an axis of trophic niche (breadth and overlap), and analysed the relationship between trophic niche and body mass (or pair-wise difference in body mass). A hierarchical cluster analysis of diet composition divided carnivores into four ecological groups: wild ungulate predators; small-mammal predators; amphibians and small mammal predators and omnivores. The relationship between body mass of predators and both trophic niche breadth and trophic niche overlap were hump-shaped. The trophic niche breadth to body mass ratio was significantly lower in DFR than in TFR and trophic niche overlap was significantly higher in DFR than in MFR and TFR. The predominant food resource is small mammals whose abundance is related to local agricultural and forestry management practices. Modifications of management techniques can affect population dynamics and community composition of carnivore species, especially in the case of small-mammal predators.     

Testing mechanistic explanations for mammalian predator responses to habitat edges

Increased predator activity along habitat edges (the edge effect) is often documented in the temperate zone, but earlier studies have rarely been able to explicitly test the suggested mechanisms underlining this phenomenon. In this study, we measured the distribution of mammalian predators by scent stations and their main prey (rodents) in four types of landscape elements corresponding to an edge gradient between two habitat types; grassland and forest. We found a contrasting pattern in carnivore activities between years. Whereas carnivores did not exhibit a significant occurrence along the forest–grassland edge in the first year with low prey abundance, they were more likely to be detected along habitat edges in the subsequent year with high prey abundance. Our results do not suggest that the increased activity of carnivores at habitat edges arises as a consequence of predator overflow from higher quality habitat through the edge into lower quality habitat, but showed that most predator species focus their activity specifically to the edge structure. On the other hand, our data do not provide straightforward support for the hypothesis that predator edge preferences are caused by a spatial gradient in carnivores’ main prey—rodents.     

The priority value of scrubland habitats for carnivore conservation in Mediterranean ecosystems

Carnivores are umbrella species with a key role in ecosystems. In the Mediterranean, they face with several conservation problems, mainly habitat loss or transformation. In this region, scrubland habitats are considered of minor conservation relevance as compared to mature forest formations. Conservation of scrublands in Mediterranean ecosystems is also difficult because to control fires, they are removed over large areas. For carnivores, scrublands may be essential to guarantee shelter and food. Here, we analyzed the importance of scrublands and other habitat variables in determining the richness of medium-sized carnivores in a typical Mediterranean area of central Spain (Monfragüe Natural Park). The Park was divided into plots of 2 × 2 km (n = 30). In each plot, a 2 km-length survey route was walked searching for carnivore scats. We recorded the number of species of carnivores and we related this value to several habitat variables. Habitat variables were summarized by means of Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Habitat models were developed by, using multiple regression models, including PCA factors and the habitat type as predictors. The only variable included in the final model was the first PCA factor. Carnivore richness was positively associated with large tree, shrub, and rock cover areas, which is the typical habitat structure of scrublands. This habitat offers the best available area for shelter and may be considered as a key element for carnivore conservation in the Mediterranean region. To reconciliate carnivore conservation and forestry management, we proposed small-scale clearances as a management alternative to typical large scrubland removals.     

Habitat selection and spatiotemporal interactions of a reintroduced mesocarnivore

Habitat quality and quantity are key factors in evaluating the potential for success of a wildlife translocation. However, because of the difficulty or cost of evaluating these factors, habitat assessments may not include valuable information on important habitat attributes including the abundance and distribution of prey, predators, and competitors. Fishers (Pekania pennanti) are one of the most commonly reintroduced carnivores in North America, and they are a species of conservation concern in their western range. We examined the relative importance of landscape features and species interactions in determining habitat use of a reintroduced population of fishers in the southern Cascade Mountains, Washington, USA. We used detections of prey and predators at 134 remote camera stations, remotely sensed forest structure data, and telemetry locations of fishers in a resource selection function to assess the relative importance of prey, predators, and forest structure in fisher habitat selection. Fishers selected habitats based on forest conditions and activity levels of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), whereas bobcat (Lynx rufus) and coyote (Canis latrans) activity levels did not directly affect habitat selection. The probability of fisher use increased in older stands, close to recently disturbed stands, and in areas with intermediate levels of hare activity. Bobcat and hare activity levels were positively correlated, and fishers avoided areas with the greatest hare activity, suggesting that fishers may experience a food-safety tradeoff in the study area. Temporal activity patterns in photo detections indicate that fishers may mediate this danger by avoiding bobcats temporally. Our findings suggest that fishers in Washington prefer habitat mosaics of old and recently disturbed stands where they have greater access to resting structures and hares. Management that maintains mosaics of young and old forest across large landscapes is likely to support fisher recovery. Future reintroduction efforts would benefit from an assessment of prey and predator abundance in proposed reintroduction areas before project initiation. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Edge effects and intraguild predation in native and introduced centipedes: evidence from the field and from laboratory microcosms

Human alteration of habitat has increased the proportion of forest edge in areas of previously continuous forest. This edge habitat facilitates invasion of exotic species into remaining fragments. The ability of native species to resist invasion varies and may depend on intrinsic variables such as dispersal and reproductive rates as well as external factors such as rate of habitat change and the density of populations of introduced species in edge habitat. We examined the distributional and competitive relationships of two members of the class Chilopoda, Scolopocryptops sexspinosus, a centipede native to the eastern US, and Lithobius forficatus, an exotic centipede introduced from Europe. We found that L. forficatus was most abundant in edge habitat and S. sexspinosus was most abundant in the interior habitat at our field sites. Although L. forficatus was present in habitat interiors at 11 of 12 sites, there was no correlation between fragment size and numbers of L. forficatus in interior habitat. The native centipede was rarely found occupying fragment edges. We used laboratory microcosms to examine potential competitive interactions and to indirectly assess prey preferences of the two species. In microcosms both species consumed similar prey, but the native centipede, S. sexspinosus, acted as an intraguild predator on the introduced centipede. Native centipedes were competitively superior in both intraspecific and interspecific pairings. Our results suggest that intraguild predation may aid native centipedes in resisting invasion of introduced centipedes from edge habitat.     

The bigger they come, the harder they fall: body size and prey abundance influence predator-prey ratios

Large carnivores are highly threatened, yet the processes underlying their population declines are still poorly understood and widely debated. We explored how body mass and prey abundance influence carnivore density using data on 199 populations obtained across multiple sites for 11 carnivore species. We found that relative decreases in prey abundance resulted in a five- to sixfold greater decrease in the largest carnivores compared with the smallest species. We discuss a number of possible causes for this inherent vulnerability, but also explore a possible mechanistic link between predator size, energetics and population processes. Our results have important implications for carnivore ecology and conservation, demonstrating that larger species are particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic threats to their environment, especially those which have an adverse affect on the abundance of their prey.     

Container-breeding mosquitoes and predator community dynamics along an urban-forest gradient: The effects of habitat type and isolation

Environmental disturbances such as deforestation, urbanization or pollution have been widely acknowledged to play a key role in the emergence of many infectious diseases, including mosquito-borne viruses. However, we have little understanding of how habitat isolation affects the communities containing disease vectors. Here, we test the effects of habitat type and isolation on the colonization rates, species richness and abundances of mosquitoes and their aquatic predators in water-filled containers in northwestern Thailand. For eight weeks water-filled containers were monitored in areas containing forest, urban and agricultural habitats and mixtures of these three. Mosquito larvae of the genera Aedes and Culex appeared to be differentially affected by the presence of the dominant predator; Toxorhynchites splendens (Culicidae). Therefore, a predation experiment was conducted to determine predator response to prey density and its relative effects on different mosquito prey populations. Colonization rates, species richness and abundances of mosquito predators were strongly related to forest habitat and to the distance from other aquatic habitats. Areas with more tree cover had higher predator species richness and abundance in containers. Containers that were close to surface water were more rapidly colonized than those further away. In all habitat types, including urban areas, when predators were present, the number of mosquito larvae was much lower. Containers in urban areas closer to water-bodies, or with more canopy cover, had higher predator colonization rates and species richness. T. splendens (Culicidae) preyed on the larvae of two mosquito genera at different rates, which appeared to be related to prey behaviour. This study shows that anthropogenic landscape modification has an important effect on the natural biological control of mosquitoes. Vector control programmes and urban planning should attempt to integrate ecological theory when developing strategies to reduce mosquito populations. This would result in management strategies that are beneficial for both public health and biodiversity.     

Intraguild dynamics of understudied carnivores in a human‐altered landscape

Mesocarnivores constitute a diverse and often abundant group of species, which are increasingly occupying hweigher trophic levels within multi‐use landscapes. Yet, we know relatively little about their interactions with each other, especially in human‐altered areas. Using camera trap data collected in a forestry concession in the Greater Gorongosa ecosystem of central Mozambique, we examined the spatiotemporal relationships and potential for intraguild competition among three understudied African carnivores: African civets (Civettictis civetta), bushy‐tailed mongooses (Bdeogale crassicauda), and large‐spotted genets (Genetta maculata). After accounting for habitat preferences and tolerance to anthropogenic factors, we found that African civets and bushy‐tailed mongooses avoid each other spatially and temporally. Additionally, civets and mongooses were also both more likely to use sites farther away from human settlements, possibly decreasing the total available habitat for each species if competition is driving this spatial partitioning. In contrast, we did not find evidence for spatial or temporal partitioning between large‐spotted genets and African civets, but bushy‐tailed mongooses altered their activity patterns where they co‐occurred with genets. Our study contributes to scant ecological knowledge of these mesocarnivores and adds to our understanding of community dynamics in human‐altered ecosystems.     

A landscape of coexistence for a large predator in a human dominated landscape

Human related mortality is a major threat for large carnivores all over the world and there is increasing evidence that large predators respond to human related risks in a similar way as prey respond to predation risk. This insight recently led to the conceptual development of a landscape of coexistence that can be used to identify areas which can sustain large predator populations in human dominated landscapes. In this study we applied the landscape of coexistence concept to a large predator in Europe. We investigated to what extent Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx habitat selection is affected by human disturbance in a human dominated landscape. More specifically, we were interested in the existence of a tradeoff between the availability of roe deer, one of their main prey and avoidance of human disturbance and how this affects the spatio‐temporal space use patterns of lynx. We found that lynx face a tradeoff between high prey availability and avoidance of human disturbance and that they respond to this by using areas of high prey availability (but also high human disturbance) during the night when human activity is low. Furthermore our analysis showed that lynx increase their travelling speed and remain more in cover when they are close to areas of high human disturbance. Despite clear behavioral adjustments in response to human presence, prey availability still proved to be the most important predictor of lynx occurrence at small spatial scale, whereas human disturbance was considerably less important. The results of our study demonstrate how spatio‐temporal adaptations in habitat selection enable large carnivores to persist in human dominated landscapes and demonstrate the usefulness of the concept of a landscape of coexistence to develop adaptive management plans for endangered populations of large carnivores.