Exposure to water increased pollen longevity of pondweed (Potamogeton spp.) indicates different mechanisms ensuring pollination success of angiosperms in aquatic habitat

Pollen longevity in seven Potamogeton species representing different pollination systems (anemophily, epihydrophily and hydroautogamy) was assessed both under aerial condition and in contact with water to investigate how water impacts the sexual reproduction in these aquatic taxa. Stainability of pollen with MTT was considered as an indicator of pollen viability. The half-life of pollen longevity was calculated using exponential decay regression. Overall, pollen viability decreased relatively rapidly with time. Pollen grains of obligate anemophilic species had lower initial viability and shorter half-lives than those of facultative anemophilic species. Pollen in these latter species may take more time to reach the stigma. The pollen of Potamogeton may be categorized as partially hydrated pollen owing to its generally spherical shape and lack of furrows, rapid loss of viability, and fast pollen tube initiation. The half-life is positively correlated with pollen size. Smaller-sized grains are at greater risk of desiccation than larger grains. In contrast with the situation observed in most terrestrial angiosperms, contact with water increases pollen longevity in Potamogeton species. In our present study the half-lives of pollen longevity of Potamogeton species in which the pollen had come into contact with water (mean of 10.65 h) were markedly higher than those under aerial conditions (mean of 5.79 h, t = 2.622, P = 0.039). The results of our study contradict a widely held belief that water is detrimental to pollen viability in angiosperms and furthermore indicate that close proximity to water results in selection for wettability. The transition to a hydrated status together with its morphology, make Potamogeton pollen more adapted to the aquatic environment and thus serves to ensure reproductive process. Results of our present study may have direct implications for understanding the evolution of the sexual reproductive system in aquatic angiosperms.     

Pollen dispersion, pollen viability and pistil receptivity in Leymus chinensis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Leymus chinensis is an economically and ecologically important grass that is widely distributed across eastern areas of the Eurasian steppe. A major problem facing its propagation by man is its low sexual reproductivity. The causes of low fecundity are uncertain, largely because many aspects of the reproductive biology of this species remained unknown or incomplete. This study aims to address some of these issues. METHODS: Pollen dispersion, pollen viability, pollen longevity and pistil receptivity were studied in a representative, natural population of L. chinensis growing in Inner Mongolia. KEY RESULTS: Flowering of L. chinensis occurred at the end of June and lasted for 5 d. Pollination peaked between 1600 h and 1700 h, and about 56.1 % of the total pollen grains were released at this time. Pollen density was highest towards the middle of flowering spikes and lowest at the bottom over the 5 d measurement period. Pollen viability (62.4 %) assessed using TTC was more accurate than using IKI (85.6 %); 50 % of pollen arriving on stigmas germinated. Pollen remained viable for only 3 h and the pollen : ovule ratio was 79 333 : 1. Pistil receptivity lasted for only 3 h and, overall, 86.7 % of pistils were pollinated. Within the spike, the relative fecundity of different positions was middle > lower > upper throughout the period of pollination; daily variation of fecundity was similar to that of the pollen flow. The spikes that opened on the day of highest pollen density exhibited the highest fecundity (36.0 %). No seeds were produced by self-pollination. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that low pollen viability, short pollen longevity and short pistil receptivity all appear to contribute to the low seed production typical of this important forage crop.     

Evaluation of Viability,Shedding Pattern,and Longevity of Pollen from Genetically Modified (GM) Herbicide-tolerant and Wild-type Zoysiagrass (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Zoysia japonica</Emphasis> Steud.)

Knowledge about pollen viability is important when evaluating the risk of genetically modified (GM) plants. Here, staining via iodine potassium iodide (IKI) or triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC) could not distinguish between live and dead pollen from Zoysia japonica. Therefore, to obtain a reliable assessment of such viability and longevity, we developed an optimum germination medium containing 20% sucrose and 50 ppm H₃BO₃. Pollen grains transferred to the germination medium at about 1000 hours had a germination rate of >90%. Pollen was most predominantly shed at approximately 1000 hours, with viability declining to nearly 0% at 1200 hours. All germinability was lost within 150 min when stored at 25°C. No significant difference was found between GM and non-GM plants in their pollen viability or longevity.     

Morphology of pollen and orbicules in some Dioscorea species and its systematic implications

Pollen and orbicule morphology of 35 Dioscorea L. species is described based on observations with light microscopy, and scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Pollen and orbicule characters are critically evaluated and discussed in the context of existing hypotheses of systematic relationships within the genus. Pollen is mostly bisulcate (sometimes monosulcate) with a perforate, microreticulate or striate sexine. Our results indicate that pollen data may be significant at sectional rank. The close relationship between sections Asterotricha and Enantiophyllum proposed by Burkill and Ayensu is supported by pollen morphology as all species investigated share bisulcate, perforate pollen with small perforations and a high perforation density. Macromorphological differences between the two compound-leaved sections Botryosicyos and Lasiophyton are also supported by pollen morphology; pollens of these two sections have very different perforation patterns. Orbicules in Dioscorea are mostly spherical and possess a smooth or spinulose surface. The latter is often correlated with a striate sexine.     

The effects of time,temperature and plant variety on pollen viability and its implications for gene flow risk

• Pollen viability affects the probability that a pollen grain deposited on a plant's stigma will produce a viable seed. Because a mature seed is needed before a gene flow event can occur, pollen viability will influence the risk of escape for genetically engineered (GE) crops.
• Pollen viability was measured at intervals for up to 2 h following removal of the pollen from the anthers. It was quantified at three temperatures and for different alfalfa varieties, including both conventional and Roundup Ready (RR) varieties. Pollen viability was assessed using in vitro germination.
• Time since removal from the anthers was the most prevalent factor affecting pollen viability in alfalfa. Pollen viability declined with increasing time at all three temperatures and for all varieties tested. Pollen viability was not affected by temperatures ranging between 25 and 37 °C and did not vary among plant varieties, including conventional and RR varieties.
• Bee foraging behaviour suggested pollen viability within the first 10 min following pollen removal from a flower to most affect seed production. Pollen longevity was predicted to have little impact on seed set and gene flow. Linking pollinator behaviour to pollen viability improved our understanding of its impact on gene flow risk.

     

Pollen morphology of Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae) and its relation to systematics

This paper adds new data on the pollen and orbicule morphology of 61 Dioscorea L. (Dioscoreaceae) species to the survey of Schols et al . (2001). The results indicate that pollen characters may be significant in infrageneric systematics in Dioscorea . Pollen and orbicule characters are described based on observations with light microscopy, and scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and are critically evaluated and discussed in the context of existing hypotheses of systematic relationships within the genus. Pollen is mostly disulculate (sometimes monosulcate) with a perforate, microreticulate, striate, gemmate, rugulate, or cerebroid perforate sexine. The basal section Stenophora is one of the few sections with monosulcate pollen. Brachyandra , Cardiocapsa , and Seriflorae , three Malagasy sections, are characterized by striate pollen. Pollen morphology strongly supports section Enantiophyllum as a monophyletic group. The correlation between pollen size and tuber type, as suggested previously by P. Su (1987), is confirmed by our data. As found in our earlier survey, orbicules in Dioscorea are mostly spherical with a smooth or spinulose surface.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 143 , 375–390.     

Viability and longevity of pollen from transgenic and nontransgenic tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) (Poaceae) plants

Pollen is an important vector of gene flow in plants, particularly for outcrossing species like tall fescue. Several aspects of pollination biology were investigated using pollen from transgenic and nontransgenic plants of tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), the most important forage species worldwide of the Festuca genus. To effectively assess in vitro pollen viability in tall fescue, an optimized germination medium (0.8 mol/L sucrose, 1.28 mmol/L boric acid and 1.27 mmol/L calcium nitrate) was developed. Treatment with relatively high temperatures (36° and 40°C) and high doses of UV-B irradiation (900-1500 μW/cm(2)) reduced pollen viability, while relative humidity did not significantly influence pollen viability. Viability of pollen from transgenic progenies (T1 and T2) was similar to that from seed-derived control plants. Pollen from primary transgenics (T0) and primary regenerants (R0) had various levels of viability. Hand pollination using the primary regenerants and transgenics revealed that no seed set could be obtained when pollen viability was lower than 5%. Pollen from transgenic progenies and nontransgenic control plants could survive up to 22 h under controlled conditions in growth chamber. However, under sunny atmospheric conditions, viability of transgenic and nontransgenic pollen reduced to 5% in 30 min, with a complete loss of viability in 90 min. Under cloudy atmospheric conditions, pollen remained viable up to 240 min, with about 5% viability after 150 min. This report is the first on pollen viability and longevity in transgenic forage grasses and could be useful for risk assessment of transgenic plants.     

不同饲料对小峰熊蜂工蜂群发育的影响

糖和花粉对熊蜂的生长发育和繁殖起重要作用。本研究测定和分析了2种糖源（白砂糖、蜂蜜）和5种花粉（杏花粉、油菜花粉、向日葵花粉、玉米花粉、茶花粉）的饲料组合对小峰熊蜂Bombus hypocrita的无王工蜂群寿命、产卵前期时间、产卵量、幼虫拖出数、卵杯数、雄蜂出房时间和子代雄蜂数量的影响。结果表明： 只饲喂糖类食物时, 工蜂寿命显著短于有花粉的饲料组, 而且工蜂不产卵。含有花粉的各饲料组之间工蜂寿命存在显著差异, 饲喂玉米花粉的工蜂寿命小于其他4种花粉组。在工蜂产卵前期时间和卵杯数量方面, 10种含有花粉的饲料组之间差异不显著; 但在产卵量、幼虫拖出数、雄蜂出房时间和子代雄蜂数量等方面, 各饲料组之间差异较大。白砂糖和杏花粉组的产卵量最高; 杏花粉组和茶花粉组的幼虫拖出数量显著低于其他花粉组; 油菜花粉组和杏花粉组的雄蜂出房时间显著短于其他花粉组; 杏花粉组的子代雄蜂数量显著高于其他饲料组。结果显示不同饲料组合对小峰熊蜂工蜂群的发育影响很大。因此建议在熊蜂的人工繁育过程中, 在不同的发育阶段应给予不同的饲料配方。     

梅花个体内花柱长度的变异及其对繁殖成功的影响

植物个体内花型的变异影响繁殖成功, 雌性繁殖性状的变异可能影响雌性的繁殖成功, 也可能作为花粉的受体影响雄性的繁殖成功。然而, 植物个体内不同花柱长度的花产生的花粉是否影响植物的繁殖成功却少有研究。梅(Armeniaca mume)是原产我国的重要木本花卉和经济果树, 我们的野外观察发现在同一植株内, 不同花的花柱长度有变异, 存在长柱型、短柱型和雄花型(雌蕊败育)三种花型, 是比较雌性繁殖性状的变异对两性繁殖成功的影响的理想材料。本文主要测量了不同花型的花部特征, 统计花期, 并开展体外花粉萌发以及人工控制授粉实验。结果表明: 长柱型的花冠直径、雌蕊长、单花花粉数、花粉体积显著大于短柱型和雄花型。长柱型的单花期以及雌花期显著长于短柱型。长柱型、短柱型以及雄花型花粉在活体柱头上的萌发率没有显著性差异, 雄花型的花粉管长度显著高于长柱型和短柱型。长柱型为母本的花粉萌发率以及花粉管的长度要显著高于短柱型。长柱型、短柱型、雄花型花粉授粉与自然对照处理的坐果率没有显著性差异, 而长柱型为母本的坐果率要显著高于短柱型为母本的坐果率。这些结果表明野生梅花的长柱型为母本有利于花粉的萌发和花粉管的伸长, 有高的坐果率; 但其作为花粉供体的雄性功能与其他花型没有差异。     

Flowering phenology and wind-pollination efficacy of heterodichogamous Juglans mandshurica (Juglandaceae)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Heterodichogamy differs from normal dichogamy, in that it involves two mating types (protogyny and protandry) that occur at a 1 : 1 ratio in a population. Flowering phases of the two mating types are synchronized and reciprocal, which was considered to ensure between-type outcrossing. This study aims to quantify the flowering pattern and pollination efficacy in Juglans mandshurica, a wind-pollinated heterodichogamous tree. METHODS: The pattern of flowering phenology was monitored within individual trees and pollen traps were used to measure air-borne pollen loads during the spring in 2003 and 2004. Pollen longevity was determined by staining technique. Also a pollen supplementation experiment was performed in 2004 to assess pollen limitation of fruit production. KEY RESULTS: There was no overlap between sexual functions within individual trees. Flowering periods of the two mating types were reciprocal and synchronous in both 2003 and 2004. Air-borne pollen loads were large, and protogynous and protandrous individuals each produced a high pollination peak, consistent with the two blooming periods. Maximum pollen longevity was about 4 h for protandrous individuals, and 3 h for protogynous individuals. Pollen supplementation did not increase fruit production in either protogynous or protandrous individuals. CONCLUSIONS: Heterodichogamous flowering in Juglans mandshurica effectively avoids selfing, promotes between-type outcrossing, and leads to efficient pollination in a natural population.     

Perception,regulation, and fitness effects of pollen phytosterols in the bumble bee,Bombus terrestris

Premise

Many flowering plants depend on insects for pollination and thus attract pollinators by offering rewards, mostly nectar and pollen. Bee pollinators rely on pollen as their main nutrient source. Pollen provides all essential micro- and macronutrients including substances that cannot be synthesized by bees themselves, such as sterols, which bees need for processes such as hormone production. Variations in sterol concentrations may consequently affect bee health and reproductive fitness. We therefore hypothesized that (1) these variations in pollen sterols affect longevity and reproduction in bumble bees and (2) can thus be perceived via the bees' antennae before consumption.

Methods

We studied the effect of sterols on longevity and reproduction of Bombus terrestris workers in feeding experiments and investigated sterol perception using chemotactile proboscis extension response (PER) conditioning.

Results

Workers could perceive several sterols (cholesterol, cholestenone, desmosterol, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol) via their antennae but not differentiate between them. However, when sterols were presented in pollen, and not as a single compound, the bees were unable to differentiate between pollen differing in sterol content. Additionally, different sterol concentrations in pollen neither affected pollen consumption nor brood development or worker longevity.

Conclusions

Since we used both natural concentrations and concentrations higher than those found in pollen, our results indicate that bumble bees may not need to pay specific attention to pollen sterol content beyond a specific threshold. Naturally encountered concentrations might fully support their sterol requirements and higher concentrations do not seem to have negative effects.

     

Within-population spatial variation in pollinator visitation rates,pollen limitation on seed set,and flower longevity in an alpine species

Pollen limitation through insufficient pollen deposition on stigmas caused by too infrequent pollinator visitation may influence the reproductive outcome of plants. In this study we investigated how pollinator visitation rate, the degree of pollen limitation, and flower longevity varied spatially among three sites at different altitudes within a population of the dwarf shrub Dryas octopetala L. in alpine southern Norway. Significant pollen limitation on seed set only occurred at the mid-elevation site, while seed set at the other sites appeared to be mainly resource limited, thus indicating a spatial variation in pollen limitation. There was no association between the spatial variation in the extent of pollen limitation and pollinator visitation rate to flowers. However, pollinator visitation rates were related to flower longevity of Dryas; sites with low visitation rates had long-lived flowers and vice versa. Thus, our results suggest within-population spatial co-variation between pollinator visitation rates, pollen limitation, and a developmental response to these factors, flower longevity.     

Within-population spatial variation in pollinator visitation rates, pollen limitation on seed set, and flower longevity in an alpine species

Pollen limitation through insufficient pollen deposition on stigmas caused by too infrequent pollinator visitation may influence the reproductive outcome of plants. In this study we investigated how pollinator visitation rate, the degree of pollen limitation, and flower longevity varied spatially among three sites at different altitudes within a population of the dwarf shrub Dryas octopetala L. in alpine southern Norway. Significant pollen limitation on seed set only occurred at the mid-elevation site, while seed set at the other sites appeared to be mainly resource limited, thus indicating a spatial variation in pollen limitation. There was no association between the spatial variation in the extent of pollen limitation and pollinator visitation rate to flowers. However, pollinator visitation rates were related to flower longevity of Dryas; sites with low visitation rates had long-lived flowers and vice versa. Thus, our results suggest within-population spatial co-variation between pollinator visitation rates, pollen limitation, and a developmental response to these factors, flower longevity.     

Absolute dormancy of pollen induced by soaking in organic solvents

Summary The pollen grains ofChrysanthemum pacificum, andLilium longiflorum retained their viability in organic solvents, and by soaking in the solvents the curve of the pollen longevity was separated into two. Pollen soaked in organic solvents may become absolute dormant temporarily, but recover the initial activity when taken out of the solvents.     

A Model of the Effect of Temperature and Moisture on Pollen Longevity in Air-dry Storage Environments

Data on the survival of pollen ofTypha latifoliaL. stored forup to 261 d over seven different saturated salt solutions (providing0.5 to 66% relative humidity) and six different constant temperatures(from -5 to +45 °C) were analysed to quantify the effectof air-dry storage environment on pollen longevity. Pollen survivalcurves conformed much more closely to negative cumulative normaldistributions than to negative exponential relations. Estimatesofp₅₀(storage period required to reduce pollen viability to50%), provided by negative cumulative normal distributions,were available from 37 different storage environments in whichpollen viability was reduced below 50%. Once observations at0.5% and 5.5% relative humidity were excluded from analysis,there was a negative logarithmic relation between these estimatesof longevity and pollen moisture content (%, wet basis) anda curvilinear semi-logarithmic relation between longevity andtemperature. When the negative logarithmic relation betweenlongevity and moisture content was replaced by a negative semi-logarithmicrelation between longevity and the relative humidity of thestorage environment the resultant model was less satisfactory,principally because pollen longevity over saturated solutionsof calcium nitrate (43–62% relative humidity) and sodiumnitrite (60–66% relative humidity) were consistently greaterand smaller, respectively, than fitted values. Notwithstandingthese errors, comparison between the fitted relations and observationsat the two lowest relative humidities provided estimates ofthe lower-relative-humidity limits to these relations. Theseprovisional estimates varied with storage temperature beinglowest at 25 °C (<5.5% relative humidity). However, therewas no linear trend to that variation (P>0.25): the meanestimate was 11.9 (s.e.=1.4)%. The considerable similaritiesamong models of pollen longevity in air-dry storage, and theirestimated lower limits, and those developed previously for orthodoxseeds and spores are discussed.Copyright 1999 Annals of BotanyCompany. Typha latifoliaL., pollen, storage, survival, longevity, relative humidity, moisture content, temperature.     

Pollen as a source of food for egg parasitoids of the genus Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)

The value of corn pollen as a food source for Trichogramma brassicae Bezdenko (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) was assessed in the laboratory by testing the effect of different pollen diets on the longevity, capacity of parasitism and other life-table parameters. T. brassicae females that fed on corn pollen and water (wet filter paper dusted with pollen) lived significantly longer (4.97 days) than females that fed on water alone (2.67 days), but significantly shorter than those feeding on honey alone (8.37 days) or corn pollen and honey (8.23 days), respectively, in the absence of host eggs. The presence of European corn borer eggs (Ostrinia nubilalis Huebner, Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) significantly increased longevity. With host eggs available, female T. brassicae that fed on corn pollen and water lived significantly longer (4.9 days) than on water alone (2.60 days), but significantly shorter than on honey alone (12.33 days) or corn pollen and honey (12.17 days), respectively. The cumulative lifetime fecundity was 82.53 offspring pupae when fed on pollen and water, which was significantly higher than 61.70 for water alone but lower than feeding on honey alone (95.70) or corn pollen and honey (99.97), respectively. Compared to water alone, corn pollen and water increased the net reproduction rate (R₀), intrinsic rate of increase (r_m), and finite rate of increase (λ), and reduced the doubling time (T₂), but had no effects on the emergence rate, sex ratio, and mean generation time (T_c). In another set of experiments, 13 out of 30 females reduced the number of pollen grains offered to them. The average number of pollen grains utilized per female in this 48-h test 2.46±0.40 (mean±SE). Hence, T. brassicae used corn pollen as food that significantly increased longevity and fecundity of the tested females. Pollen and honey supplied a complete diet for T. brassicae, compared to pollen and water or water alone.     

Effect of different diets on reproduction,longevity and predation capacity of Orius insidiosus (Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae)

Orius insidiosus is a generalist predator for which diet influences important biological traits like reproduction and predation. We tested the effects of different diets alone or in combination on reproduction, longevity and predation capacity of this predator. The diets tested were: no food (control); pollen; Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) nymphs and adults; F. occidentalis nymphs and adults and pollen; Anagasta kuehniella (Zeller) eggs; A. kuehniella eggs and pollen; A. kuehniella eggs; F. occidentalis nymphs and adults and A. kuehniella eggs, F. occidentalis nymphs and adults and pollen. The pre-oviposition period was shortest when the diet consisted of pollen and prey (A. kuehniella and/or F. occidentalis), of the two prey species together or of only A. kuehniella eggs. The highest values for the length of the oviposition period (50.1, 48.0, 46.3 and 46.1 days), daily fecundity (3.8, 3.9, 4.0 and 4.2 eggs/female/day), total fecundity (190.3, 187.7 185.2 and 193.6 eggs/female) and longevity (52.1, 49.9, 48.7 and 48.0 days) were found with diets consisting of only A. kuehniella eggs. Pollen did not improve any of the performance parameters of the predator when offered exclusively or as a complementary food. The results show that selection of a proper diet can strongly improve reproduction, longevity and predation capacity of O. insidiosus. An important finding is that A. kuehniella eggs, which can easily be produced in large quantities, are an excellent factitious prey for mass production of O. insidiosus.     

Effects of pollen competitive environment on pollen performance in Mirabilis jalapa (Nyctaginaceae)

 We examined the influence of pollen competitive environment on pollen performance in Mirabilis jalapa. We used the number of pollen grains and the number of pollen tubes per pistil as measures of pollen competition. Pollen germination, pollen tube penetration into the style, and pollen tube growth rates were used as measures of pollen performance. All three measures of pollen performance were affected by the competitive environment. Pollen germination was greatest at intermediate pollen load sizes. The percentage of germinated pollen grains that penetrated the stigma and grew into the style decreased with pollen load size. Pollen tube growth rate in the style was greater and more variable with larger numbers of pollen tubes in the style. Controlling for the degree of selection at the stigma indicated that pollen-pollen or pollen-style interactions were the likely causes of increased growth rates. Received: 28 October 1996 / Revision accepted: 24 January 1997     

The phenology of gender in homogamous flowers: temporal change in the residual sex function of flowers of Oil-seed Rape (Brassica napus)

1. We investigated the phenology of the male and female sexual functions in flowers of Oil-seed Rape ( Brassica napus ) that were exposed to pollinators in an experimental garden. The female 'residual sex function' (RSF) of flowers was measured by hand-pollinating with genetically marked pollen in order to determine the proportion of ovules that remained available for fertilization by incoming pollen. Male RSF was measured by estimating the proportion of pollen grains that remained in dehiscing anthers.
2. Following flower opening, an average flower's male and female sexual functions each required for completion c. 13 h of exposure to pollinators. One hour after opening, c. 50% of a flower's ovules were unavailable to incoming pollen whereas only c. 10% of pollen was removed. Therefore, a flower's sexual function was predominantly female for the first hour and predominantly male thereafter.
3. We found a fairly close correspondence between the proportion of the stigma covered with pollen and the depletion of female RSF.
4. On average, floral senescence occurred after c. 14·5 h of exposure to pollinators. Our observations are fairly consistent with a simple, economic model of optimal senescence time because the flowers remained open for approximately the same length of time as was necessary for the completion of their sexual functions.
5. A flower's senescence was hastened when pollen was removed from the anthers, but not when pollen was deposited on the stigma.
6. When flowers were either left undisturbed or hand-pollinated, senescence occurred after c. 24 h. Pollen removal caused senescence after c. 13 h, which also approximated the longevity of flowers in the experimental garden. Apparently, pollen removal governed floral longevity under field conditions.     

鹅掌楸的传粉环境与性配置

近年来研究表明,动物传粉者对植物花部诱物特征（花冠形状大小,花蜜产量和花序大小）有潜在的选择作用。不同效率的传粉者可能导致植物性配置的变化,不同传粉效率的环境下,两性花植物鹅掌楸的花粉和胚珠的配置不同,居群Ｚ在主要访花者是传粉效率较低的类的传粉环境下,花粉粒小,花粉数量相对较高;另一方面胚珠投资的减少,缓解了低效的传粉（增大授粉的几率）,增加了受精的机会。相对而言,具有高效访花者的两个居群,资源较