Gene-Expression Profiling of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a mouse model that serves as an experimental tool for studying the etiology, pathogenesis, as well as new therapeutic approaches of multiple sclerosis (MS). EAE is a polygenic chronic inflammatory demyelinating disease of the nervous system that involves the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Previous studies have identified multiple quantitative trait loci (QTL) controlling different aspects of disease pathogenesis. However, progress in identifying new susceptibility genes outside the MHC locus has been slow. With the advent of new global methods for genetic analysis such as large-scale sequencing, gene expression profiling combined with classic linkage analysis and congenic and physical mapping progress is considerably accelerating. Here we review our preliminary work on the use of gene expression mapping to identify new putative genetic pathways contributing to the pathogenesis of EAE.     

Treg Cell Resistance to Apoptosis in DNA Vaccination for Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Treatment

Background

Regulatory T (Treg) cells can be induced with DNA vaccinations and protect mice from the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a mouse model of multiple sclerosis (MS). Tacrolimus (FK506) has been shown to have functions on inducing immunosuppression and augmenting apoptosis of pathologic T cells in autoimmune disease. Here we examined the therapeutic effect of DNA vaccine in conjunction with FK506 on EAE.

Methodology/Principal Findings

After EAE induction, C57BL/6 mice were treated with DNA vaccine in conjunction with FK506. Functional Treg cells were induced in treated EAE mice and suppressed Th1 and Th17 cell responses. Infiltrated CD4 T cells were reduced while Treg cells were induced in spinal cords of treated EAE mice. Remarkably, the activated CD4 T cells augmented apoptosis, but the induced Treg cells resisted apoptosis in treated EAE mice, resulting in alleviation of clinical EAE severity.

Conclusions/Significance

DNA vaccine in conjunction with FK506 treatment ameliorates EAE by enhancing apoptosis of CD4 T cells and resisting apoptosis of induced Treg cells. Our findings implicate the potential of tolerogenic DNA vaccines for treating MS.     

适用于MR成像的多发性硬化大鼠模型的研究进展

多发性硬化(MS)是中青年非外伤性致残的最常见原因,但是MS的发病机制迄今尚不完全明了。核磁共振成像(MRI)是目前诊断、监测MS的重要手段。实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎(EAE)是公认的研究人类MS的动物模型,MRI为EAE模型的评估提供直接、客观的影像学依据。理想的EAE大鼠模型不仅有助于开展对MS的防治、发病机理、相关药物开发等多方面的研究,而且为MRI提供合适的研究平台,对MS早期诊断、病情的监测和评价提供重要线索。     

Neuroprotection by Ulinastatin in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Ulinastatin has previously been used as a drug for patients with acute inflammatory disorders. The goal of the present study was to investigate the protective effects of ulinastatin on myelin sheaths and oligodendrocytes in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), and to explore the possible underlying mechanism. Mice were divided into an ulinastatin treatment group, a normal saline treatment group, and a normal control group. EAE was induced in the mice with and without ulinastatin treatment. Demyelination was evaluated, as was the number of oligodendrocytes. The ulinastatin treatment group had a significantly lower clinical score, demyelinating score, and large numbers of oligodendrocytes compared with the group without ulinastatin treatment. Furthermore, ulinastatin treatment increased the expression of nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and protected against oligodendrocyte apoptosis. Thus, ulinastatin is shown to have a protective effect against EAE.     

Contribution of Pannexin1 to Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Pannexin1 (Panx1) is a plasma membrane channel permeable to relatively large molecules, such as ATP. In the central nervous system (CNS) Panx1 is found in neurons and glia and in the immune system in macrophages and T-cells. We tested the hypothesis that Panx1-mediated ATP release contributes to expression of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model for multiple sclerosis, using wild-type (WT) and Panx1 knockout (KO) mice. Panx1 KO mice displayed a delayed onset of clinical signs of EAE and decreased mortality compared to WT mice, but developed as severe symptoms as the surviving WT mice. Spinal cord inflammatory lesions were also reduced in Panx1 KO EAE mice during acute disease. Additionally, pharmacologic inhibition of Panx1 channels with mefloquine (MFQ) reduced severity of acute and chronic EAE when administered before or after onset of clinical signs. ATP release and YoPro uptake were significantly increased in WT mice with EAE as compared to WT non-EAE and reduced in tissues of EAE Panx1 KO mice. Interestingly, we found that the P2X7 receptor was upregulated in the chronic phase of EAE in both WT and Panx1 KO spinal cords. Such increase in receptor expression is likely to counterbalance the decrease in ATP release recorded from Panx1 KO mice and thus contribute to the development of EAE symptoms in these mice. The present study shows that a Panx1 dependent mechanism (ATP release and/or inflammasome activation) contributes to disease progression, and that inhibition of Panx1 using pharmacology or gene disruption delays and attenuates clinical signs of EAE.     

Reduced Severity of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in GMF-Deficient Mice

Glia maturation factor (GMF), a highly conserved brain-specific protein, isolated, sequenced and cloned in our laboratory. Overexpression of GMF in astrocytes induces the production and secretion of granulocyte-macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and subsequent immune activation of microglia, expression of several proinflammatory genes including major histocompatibility complex proteins, IL-1β, and MIP-1β, all associated with the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the animal model for multiple sclerosis. Based on GMF’s ability to activate microglia and induce well-established proinflammatory mediators, including GM-CSF, we hypothesize that GMF is involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory disease EAE. In this present investigation, using GMF-deficient mice, we study the role of GMF and how the lack of GMF affects the EAE disease. Our results show a significant decrease in incidence, delay in onset, and reduced severity of EAE in GMF-deficient mice, and support the hypothesis that GMF plays a major role in the pathogenesis of disease.     

Cytokines as Mediators of Neuroinflammation in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Cytokines play a pivotal role in maintaining homeostasis of the immune system and in regulation of the immune response. Cytokine dysregulation is often associated with development of various pathological conditions, including autoimmunity. Recent studies have provided insights into the cytokine signaling pathways that are involved not only in pathogenesis of autoimmune neuroinflammatory disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, but also in neurodegenerative states, for example, Alzheimer’s disease. Understanding the exact molecular mechanisms of disease pathogenesis and evaluation of relevant experimental animal models are necessary for development of effective therapeutic approaches.     

The Extracellular Domain of Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Elicits Atypical Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Rat and Macaque Species

Atypical models of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) are advantageous in that the heterogeneity of clinical signs appears more reflective of those in multiple sclerosis (MS). Conversely, models of classical EAE feature stereotypic progression of an ascending flaccid paralysis that is not a characteristic of MS. The study of atypical EAE however has been limited due to the relative lack of suitable models that feature reliable disease incidence and severity, excepting mice deficient in gamma-interferon signaling pathways. In this study, atypical EAE was induced in Lewis rats, and a related approach was effective for induction of an unusual neurologic syndrome in a cynomolgus macaque. Lewis rats were immunized with the rat immunoglobulin variable (IgV)-related extracellular domain of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (IgV-MOG) in complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) followed by one or more injections of rat IgV-MOG in incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (IFA). The resulting disease was marked by torticollis, unilateral rigid paralysis, forelimb weakness, and high titers of anti-MOG antibody against conformational epitopes of MOG, as well as other signs of atypical EAE. A similar strategy elicited a distinct atypical form of EAE in a cynomolgus macaque. By day 36 in the monkey, titers of IgG against conformational epitopes of extracellular MOG were evident, and on day 201, the macaque had an abrupt onset of an unusual form of EAE that included a pronounced arousal-dependent, transient myotonia. The disease persisted for 6–7 weeks and was marked by a gradual, consistent improvement and an eventual full recovery without recurrence. These data indicate that one or more boosters of IgV-MOG in IFA represent a key variable for induction of atypical or unusual forms of EAE in rat and Macaca species. These studies also reveal a close correlation between humoral immunity against conformational epitopes of MOG, extended confluent demyelinating plaques in spinal cord and brainstem, and atypical disease induction.     

Hsp70 Regulates Immune Response in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Heat shock protein (Hsp)70 is one of the most important stress-inducible proteins. Intracellular Hsp70 not only mediates chaperone-cytoprotective functions but can also block multiple steps in the apoptosis pathway. In addition, Hsp70 is actively released into the extracellular milieu, thereby promoting innate and adaptive immune responses. Thus, Hsp70 may be a critical molecule in multiple sclerosis (MS) pathogenesis and a potential target in this disease due to its immunological and cytoprotective functions. To investigate the role of Hsp70 in MS pathogenesis, we examined its immune and cytoprotective roles using both in vitro and in vivo experimental procedures. We found that Hsp70.1-deficient mice were more resistant to developing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) compared with their wild-type (WT) littermates, suggesting that Hsp70.1 plays a critical role in promoting an effective myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-specific T cell response. Conversely, Hsp70.1-deficient mice that developed EAE showed an increased level of autoreactive T cells to achieve the same production of cytokines compared with the WT mice. Although a neuroprotective role of HSP70 has been suggested, Hsp70.1-deficient mice that developed EAE did not exhibit increased demyelination compared with the control mice. Accordingly, Hsp70 deficiency did not influence the vulnerability to apoptosis of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) in culture. Thus, the immunological role of Hsp70 may be relevant in EAE, and specific therapies down-regulating Hsp70 expression may be a promising approach to reduce the early autoimmune response in MS patients.     

Redundancy between Cysteine Cathepsins in Murine Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

The cysteine cathepsins B, S, and L are functionally linked to antigen processing, and hence to autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis. Stemming from several studies that demonstrate that mice can be protected from experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) through the pharmacologic inhibition of cysteine cathepsins, it has been suggested that targeting these enzymes in multiple sclerosis may be of therapeutic benefit. Utilizing mice deficient in cysteine cathepsins both individually and in combination, we found that the myelin-associated antigen myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) was efficiently processed and presented by macrophages to CD4+ T cells in the individual absence of cathepsin B, S or L. Similarly, mice deficient in cathepsin B or S were susceptible to MOG-induced EAE and displayed clinical progression and immune infiltration into the CNS, similar to their wild-type counterparts. Owing to a previously described CD4+ T cell deficiency in mice deficient in cathepsin L, such mice were protected from EAE. When multiple cysteine cathepsins were simultaneously inhibited via genetic deletion of both cathepsins B and S, or by a cathepsin inhibitor (LHVS), MHC-II surface expression, MOG antigen presentation and EAE were attenuated or prevented. This study demonstrates the functional redundancy between cathepsin B, S and L in EAE, and suggests that the inhibition of multiple cysteine cathepsins may be needed to modulate autoimmune disorders such as multiple sclerosis.     

依达拉奉对大鼠实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎的保护作用

目的:研究依达拉奉对实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎(Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis,EAE)的影响。方法:72只健康成年雌性Wistar大鼠随机分为:正常对照组、EAE组、EAE+小剂量依达拉奉组、EAE+大剂量依达拉奉组(n=18)。正常对照组注射生理盐水,其它组采用自制完全抗原诱导EAE模型。EAE组建模后不做任何处理,EAE+小剂量依达拉奉组、EAE+大剂量依达拉奉组分别在建模后给予依达拉奉4mg/k·d、10mg/k·d。比较各组发病率并行神经功能评分,取脊髓组织行HE染色、iNOS、OPN免疫组织化学染色观察。结果:依达拉奉干预组大鼠较EAE组发病率、神经功能缺损评分均明显降低(P<0.05)。HE结果显示依达拉奉干预组较EAE组炎症反应减少,损伤程度减轻。依达拉奉组iNOS、OPN表达均明显小于EAE组(P<0.05)。大剂量依达拉奉iNOS、OPN表达均低于小剂量依达拉奉组(P<0.05)。结论:依达拉奉对EAE具有保护作用,可能与抑制小神经胶质细胞活化,减轻炎症反应,降低iNOS和OPN表达有关。     

N-type Calcium Channel in the Pathogenesis of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

One of the family of voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCC), the N-type Ca²⁺ channel, is located predominantly in neurons and is associated with a variety of neuronal responses, including neurodegeneration. A precise mechanism for how the N-type Ca²⁺ channel plays a role in neurodegenerative disease, however, is unknown. In this study, we immunized N-type Ca²⁺ channel α_1B-deficient (α_1B^−/−) mice and their wild type (WT) littermates with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein 35–55 and analyzed the progression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The neurological symptoms of EAE in the α_1B^−/− mice were less severe than in the WT mice. In conjunction with these results, sections of the spinal cord (SC) from α_1B^−/− mice revealed a reduction in both leukocytic infiltration and demyelination compared with WT mice. No differences were observed in the delayed-type hypersensitivity response, spleen cell proliferation, or cytokine production from splenocytes between the two genotypes. On the other hand, Western blot array analysis and RT-PCR revealed that a typical increase in the expression of MCP-1 in the SC showed a good correlation with the infiltration of leukocytes into the SC. Likewise, immunohistochemical analysis showed that the predominant source of MCP-1 was activated microglia. The cytokine-induced production of MCP-1 in primary cultured microglia from WT mice was significantly higher than that from α_1B^−/− mice and was significantly inhibited by a selective N-type Ca²⁺ channel antagonist, ω-conotoxin GVIA or a withdrawal of extracellular Ca²⁺. These results suggest that the N-type Ca²⁺ channel is involved in the pathogenesis of EAE at least in part by regulating MCP-1 production by microglia.     

依达拉奉对大鼠实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎的保护作用

目的：研究依达拉奉对实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎（Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis,EAE）的影响。方法：72只健康成年雌性Wistar大鼠随机分为：正常对照组、EAE组、EAE＋小剂量依达拉奉组、EAE＋大剂量依达拉奉组（n=18）。正常对照组注射生理盐水,其它组采用自制完全抗原诱导EAE模型。EAE组建模后不做任何处理,EAE＋小剂量依达拉奉组、EAE＋大剂量依达拉奉组分别在建模后给予依达拉奉4mg/k·d、10mg/k·d。比较各组发病率并行神经功能评分,取脊髓组织行HE染色、iNOS、OPN免疫组织化学染色观察。结果：依达拉奉干预组大鼠较EAE组发病率、神经功能缺损评分均明显降低（P〈0.05）。HE结果显示依达拉奉干预组较EAE组炎症反应减少,损伤程度减轻。依达拉奉组iNOS、OPN表达均明显小于EAE组（P〈0.05）。大剂量依达拉奉iNOS、OPN表达均低于小剂量依达拉奉组（P〈0.05）。结论：依达拉奉对EAE具有保护作用,可能与抑制小神经胶质细胞活化,减轻炎症反应,降低iNOS和OPN表达有关。     

Kinetics of Tissue Iron in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Rats

To elucidate the role of iron in the pathomechanisms of autoimmune CNS disorders, we estimated the tissue concentrations of Fe²⁺ in the brain, spinal cord, and liver in the chronic relapsing form of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The disease was induced in Dark Agouti (DA) strain of rats, by subcutaneous injection of bovine brain homogenate in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA). Control rats consisted of unsensitized rats and of rats treated with CFA or saline. The data obtained by clinical assessment and by inductively coupled plasma spectrometry have shown that the attacks of disease (on the 12th and 22nd post-immunization day) were followed by high accumulation of iron in the liver. Additionally, during the second attack of disease, the decreased concentration of Fe²⁺ was found in cervical spinal cord. The data point to regulatory effects of iron and hepatic trace elements regulating mechanisms in the pathogenesis of EAE.     

昆明小鼠实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎模型的建立

用豚鼠脊髓匀浆液和不完全弗氏佐剂制备免疫原,联合腹腔注射百日咳毒素,建立昆明小鼠实验性自身免疫性脑脊髓炎动物模型.发病小鼠临床神经系统症状逐渐加重,脑组织经HE染色后,可见血管周围有大量炎性细胞浸润,呈袖套状改变;大脑白质可见胶质细胞增生形成胶质细胞结节以及神经细胞坏死等病理改变.正常小鼠中枢神经系统功能及病理检查均未见异常.此模型为进一步阐明多发性硬化的发病机制打下基础.     

Daphnetin Ameliorates Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Through Regulating Heme Oxygenase-1

Neurochemical Research - To assess the potential role of daphnetin, a clinically used anti-inflammatory agent, on the development of the inflammatory and neurodegenerative disease, we investigated...     

Deficiency of Autophagy in Dendritic Cells Protects against Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Dendritic cells (DCs) are the most potent antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in the immune system. DCs present antigens to CD8 and CD4 T cells in the context of class I or II MHC. Recent evidence suggests that autophagy, a conserved intracellular degradation pathway, regulates class II antigen presentation. In vitro studies have shown that deletion of autophagy-related genes reduced antigen presentation by APCs to CD4 T cells. In vivo studies confirmed these findings in the context of infectious diseases. However, the relevance of autophagy-mediated antigen presentation in autoimmunity remains to be elucidated. Here, we report that loss of autophagy-related gene 7 (Atg7) in DCs ameliorated experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a CD4 T cell-mediated mouse model of multiple sclerosis, by reducing in vivo priming of T cells. In contrast, severity of hapten-induced contact hypersensitivity, in which CD8 T cells and NK cells play major roles, was unaffected. Administration of the autophagy-lysosomal inhibitor chloroquine, before EAE onset, delayed disease progression and, when administered after the onset, reduced disease severity. Our data show that autophagy is required in DCs for induction of EAE and suggest that autophagy might be a potential target for treating CD4 T cell-mediated autoimmune conditions.     

Ninjurin1 Deficiency Attenuates Susceptibility of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Mice

Ninjurin1 is a homotypic adhesion molecule that contributes to leukocyte trafficking in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis. However, in vivo gene deficiency animal studies have not yet been done. Here, we constructed Ninjurin1 knock-out (KO) mice and investigated the role of Ninjurin1 on leukocyte trafficking under inflammation conditions such as EAE and endotoxin-induced uveitis. Ninjurin1 KO mice attenuated EAE susceptibility by reducing leukocyte recruitment into the injury regions of the spinal cord and showed less adhesion of leukocytes on inflamed retinal vessels in endotoxin-induced uveitis mice. Moreover, the administration of a custom-made antibody (Ab_26–37) targeting the Ninjurin1 binding domain ameliorated the EAE symptoms, showing the contribution of its adhesion activity to leukocyte trafficking. In addition, we addressed the transendothelial migration (TEM) activity of bone marrow-derived macrophages and Raw264.7 cells according to the expression level of Ninjurin1. TEM activity was decreased in Ninjurin1 KO bone marrow-derived macrophages and siNinj1 Raw264.7 cells. Consistent with this, GFP-tagged mNinj1-overexpressing Raw264.7 cells increased their TEM activity. Taken together, we have clarified the contribution of Ninjurin1 to leukocyte trafficking in vivo and delineated its direct functions to TEM, emphasizing Ninjurin1 as a beneficial therapeutic target against inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis.