Genetic and selective factors in reduction of the hallux in Pongo pygmaeus

Extreme reduction of the hallux is unique to the orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus) among Primates. Hallucal diminution has advanced so far that 60% of orang-utans lack both distal phalanges and nails. Absence of these structures occurs significantly more often in females than in males. Hypotheses on possible genetic control of the condition have been tested and indicate that either single gene inheritance or polygenic inheritance with variable expressivity is involved. Reduction of pollex and of hallux in Pongo have advanced with selection for a specialized four-digit grasp in hands and feet. Diminution has progressed farther in the great toe than in the thumb due to selection for fine manipulation in the latter digit.     

Patterns of dispersal in Sumatran siamangs (Symphalangus syndactylus): preliminary mtDNA evidence suggests more frequent male than female dispersal to adjacent groups

Gibbons of both sexes have been observed emigrating from their natal groups, but the consequences of dispersal in gibbons are poorly understood, and it is unclear whether these are the same for both sexes. I sequenced a 350-bp fragment of mitochondrial DNA from 18 adults in seven siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus) groups at the Way Canguk Research Station in southern Sumatra to assess patterns of matrilineal relatedness among and within siamang groups, and to assess their fit with different patterns of sex-specific dispersal. A total of 11 haplotypes were identified in the seven study groups; 50% of adult males in five contiguous groups shared a haplotype with a member of an immediately adjacent group, whereas only 16.7% of females shared a haplotype with a neighbor. The apparent difference persisted if only same-sex individuals were considered (37.5% of males vs. 0% of females). Four of the seven study groups contained two adult males and a single adult female. In three multimale groups, the three adults all had different haplotypes, suggesting that neither male was the retained adult offspring of the female, whereas in the fourth group, the haplotype of one male was identical with that of the adult female. The high diversity of haplotypes and the absence of clustering among female haplotypes in the study neighborhood suggest that female dispersal to territories adjacent to the natal group may be relatively rare. The presence of some clustering of male haplotypes suggests that shorter dispersal distances may be more common in males.     

Multifactorial inheritance of common white markings in the Arabian horse

The results of a previous study were compatible with the hypothesis that common white facial markings in the Arabian horse have a multifactorial mode of inheritance. I expanded that study to (1) include the legs and therefore obtain insight into the heritability of common white markings in all peripheral regions (face and legs) of the Arabian horse and (2) investigate the influence of sex and the genotypes that produce the bay and chestnut phenotypes on the variation in common white markings. Both studies were based on computerized data obtained from the Arabian Horse Registry of America, Inc. Each leg of a horse was scored from 0 to 5 depending on the amount of whiteness present, and the four leg scores were added to obtain the total leg score for each horse. The facial region was divided into five areas, and each horse was given a score from 0 to 5 according to the number of areas with whiteness. Sire families were analyzed in which each sire family consisted of a sire, his foals, and the dams of those foals. There was a correlation between white facial scores and white leg scores, suggesting that both types of white markings are influenced by the same genetic mechanism. Sire-foal and dam-foal regression analyses were compatible with the hypothesis that common white leg markings also show multifactorial inheritance. Although the results support the model that additively acting genes (polygenes) influence the presence and extent of common white markings, the results also show that males are slightly more marked than are females and that chestnut horses are more heavily marked than are bay horses.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Mate recognition in members of the Drosophila nasuta complex

An examination of the courtship patterns of species belonging to the Drosophila nasuta complex shows that markings which are characteristic of males are almost certainly involved in their recognition as conspecifics by females. In each species the males perform a courtship sequence in such a way as to expose these markings to the female. A phylogeny of the species based on both male courtship patterns and the associated male markings is constructed. This phylogeny is compared to previously published phylogenies of the same group which were based on fixed and floating chromosomal differences between the species. Finally, the evidence which the complex provides for the utility and general significance of a new species concept, the Recognition Concept, is evaluated.     

Size‐dependent predation risk partly explains the sex‐related marking polymorphism in the sexually size‐dimorphic pygmy grasshopper Tetrix japonica

The sexually size‐dimorphic grasshopper Tetrix japonica exhibits variation in body‐color markings on the pronotum even within a single local population. Such markings have been suggested to reduce the visual detectability of grasshoppers. However, some grasshoppers have no markings. In the present study, we examined the effect of the sex‐related difference in body size and the spotted markings on the degree of camouflage. We hypothesized that: (i) large individuals (females) are potentially more readily detectable than small individuals; (ii) large individuals (females) with spotted markings would realize a moderate degree of the camouflage effect, whereas large individuals (females) without spotted markings would be quite poorly camouflaged; (iii) small individuals (males) would be sufficiently less detectable, with or without markings; and (iv) large individuals (females) would tend to have spotted markings in the wild. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a morph‐frequency field survey and laboratory experiments on the body‐size dependency of the spotted markings. The field survey confirmed that all females exhibited spotted markings and that the majority of males were non‐spotted morphs. Next, to determine whether body size and the spotted markings affected crypsis, we conducted detection task experiments using humans as dummy predators by manipulating the body size, presence/absence of spotted markings, or both, of printed grasshoppers. The absence of spotted markings increased the detection risk in large and small grasshoppers, particularly in large‐sized females. These results suggest that female‐biased selective predation could have eliminated non‐spotted female morphs because they were too conspicuous.     

Bone and Joint Disorders in Wild Japanese Macaques from Nagano Prefecture,Japan

I studied bone and joint disorders in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata fuscata) in order to discern some aspects of their life history from the skeletal material. The specimens comprise 107 nearly complete skeletons of subadults and adults that were killed as crop-raiding monkeys between 1997 and 1998 in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. The most frequent disorder is angular deformity due to fractures: 80 healed fractures in 31 of 52 males and 71 healed fractures in 26 of 55 females. Secondary osteoarthritis due to fractures is rare. Two males have osteochondritis dissecans bilaterally on the posterior surface of the lateral femoral condyles. Degenerative changes are common in the aged individuals. Fractures of the trunk—clavicle, scapula, vertebrae, ribs or hip—are frequent in the males. Contrarily, the majority of fractures in females are in the hands and feet. While most fractures in males appear to have occurred during adulthood, those in females occurred during childhood and senescence. Interindividual violence should not be regarded as a principal cause for fractures in males and females because there is no bite wound except perhaps for one case of an amputated digit. Fractures of the trunk in males were probably caused by impact forces against their shoulders or hips or both caused by rolling down a steep slope or falling out of trees, perhaps during intertroop transfers.     

Relative lengths of fingers and toes in human males and females

Digital scans of the hands and feet were obtained from 62 heterosexual females and 60 heterosexual males. Scans only of the hands were obtained from 29 homosexual females and 35 homosexual males. The lengths of the individual fingers and toes were estimated from those images by two experienced judges, and length ratios were constructed for all possible pairs of fingers (or toes) on each hand (or foot). Thumbs were not measured, but the great toe was measured and used to construct length ratios. Past research had concentrated on the relative lengths of the index and ring fingers (the 2D:4D ratio). This ratio is close to 1.0 in females and smaller than 1.0 in males. Here 2D:4D did exhibit the largest sex difference, for both hands, followed by 2D:5D and 3D:4D. The sex differences were larger for the right hand than for the left. For both homosexual females and homosexual males, nearly all of the length ratios for fingers were intermediate to those for heterosexual females and heterosexual males; that is, the ratios of homosexual females were masculinized and those of homosexual males were hypomasculinized, but few of these differences were significant. Because many toes were substantially arched, acceptable estimates of length often could not be obtained from the two-dimensional scans, meaning that conclusions about toes are much less certain than those for fingers. Nevertheless, the length ratios were generally larger for toes than for fingers, and the sex differences were generally smaller for toes.     

The influence of gender, athletic events, and athletic experience on the subjective dominant hand and the determination of the dominant hand based on the laterality quotient (LQ) and the validity of the LQ

This study aimed to reveal the influence of gender, athletic events and athletic experience on the subjective dominant hand and the dominant hand based on the laterality quotient (LQ). It also aimed to examine the validity of the Edinburgh Inventory (Oldfield, 1971). Males and females (n=3,726) living in 7 prefectures in Japan (age: 16-45 yrs) participated in this survey. Analysis was performed on 3,557 separate datasets with high reliability. The reliability of the survey was examined using a test-retest method consisting of 100 people selected randomly from all participants. All participants provided the same answers for each question. The influence of gender, event and experience was examined for the subjective and LQ-based dominant hands. In addition, concordance rates of the subjective dominant hand and the LQ-based dominant hand and both dominant hands were examined. Differences of concordance rates between hands used in the 10 movement questions of the Inventory and the subjective dominant hand were tested using the chi(2) test. The frequency differences among items were tested using Ryan's method (multiple comparisons). Significant gender differences were found between rates of the LQ-based dominant hand (males: 94.4%; females: 96.6%) and the subjective dominant hand (males: 91.6%; females: 94.0%), but the degree was only 2.0-4.0%. Insignificant differences were found among athletic events, two groups of different athletic experience, and gender according to each athletic event. The subjective dominant hand almost always agreed with the LQ-based dominant hand (complete concordance rate=0.96, kappa=0.67). Of the 10 question items, inexperienced answers were found only in the item "Knife (without fork)". The "Toothbrush", "Broom (upper hand)", and "Opening box (lid)" items had significantly lower correspondence with the subjective dominant hand (79.7-87.0%) than the other items (92.1-95.7%).In conclusion, athletic experience appears to have little influence on handedness, although there is a slight gender difference. The subjective dominant hand almost always agrees with the dominant hand based on the Inventory. A more efficient handedness inventory may be constructed by excluding the above 4 items.     

Bacterial degradability of an intrafeather unmelanized ornament: a role for feather‐degrading bacteria in sexual selection?

The impact of feather‐degrading bacilli on feathers depends on the presence or absence of melanin. In vitro studies have demonstrated that unmelanized (white) feathers are more degradable by bacteria than melanized (dark) ones. However, no previous study has looked at the possible effect of feather‐degrading bacilli on the occurrence of patterns of unmelanized patches on otherwise melanized feathers. The pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca Pallas, 1764 is a sexually dimorphic passerine with white wing bands consisting of unmelanized patches on dark flight feathers. These patches are considered to be a sexually selected trait in Ficedula flycatchers, especially in males, where the patches are more conspicuous (larger and possibly whiter) than in females. Using in vitro tests of feather bacterial degradation, we compared the degradability of unmelanized and melanized areas of the same feather for 127 primaries collected from the same number of individuals in a population breeding in central Spain (58 males and 69 females). In addition, we also looked for sex differences in feather degradability. Based on honest signalling theory and on the fact that there is stronger sexual selection for males to signal feather quality than in females, we predicted that unmelanized areas should be more degradable by bacteria than melanized ones within the same feather, and that these unmelanized areas should also be more degradable in males than in females. We confirmed both predictions. Microstructural differences between cross‐section dimensions of unmelanized and melanized barbs, but not differences in the density of barbs within unmelanized and melanized areas of feathers in males and females, could partly explain differences in degradability. This is the first study to show differences in bacterial degradability among markings on the same feather and among unmelanized feather patches between males and females as predicted by sexual selection theory. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105 , 409–419.     

Morphological and Biochemical Characterization of the Cream Markings in the Integument of the Female Isopod,Armadillidium vulgare

Cream markings aligned along the dorsal region of the female isopod, A. vulgare, were investigated with light and a fluorescence microscope and an electron microscope. Biochemical studies were also carried out. The cream markings were observed in the dorsal integument as a group of cream-colored chromatophores that emit a yellow fluorescence. These chromatophores, which are distinguishable from ommochrome chromatophores, contained numerous granules in the cytoplasm, and these granules (0.6–3.0 μm in length by 0.4–1.5 μm in width) were electron-lucent and spheroidal in shape with a concentric arrangement of membranes. Based on various biochemical analyses, the principal component of the yellow pigment isolated from the cream markings was identified as sepiapterin. These facts revealed that the cream markings are the chromatophores that contain pteridine granules. The males have no cream markings like those of the females, since the cream-colored chromatophores are externally hidden by the ommochrome chromatophore layer. The content of sepiapterin in the males was about two times greater than that in the females. This quantitative difference in sepiapterin content between males and females suggests that the pteridine formation in this pigment cell may be regulated by hormones associated with sex determination.     

Dorsal skin color patterns among southern right whales (Eubalaena australis): genetic basis and evolutionary significance.

Distribution and inheritance of dorsal skin color markings among two populations of southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) suggest that two genes influence dorsal skin color. The grey-morph and partial-grey-morph phenotypes (previously known as partial albino and grey-blaze, respectively) appear to be controlled by an X-linked gene, whereas the white blaze appears controlled by an autosomal gene (recessive phenotype). Calving intervals, calf size, and length of sighting history data suggest that partial-grey-morph, white-blaze, and black cows experience similar levels of reproductive success. Grey-morph cows (XgXg) are rare or absent in the two populations, but this was not unexpected given observed population frequencies of grey-morph males (XgY) and partial-grey-morph females (XGXg). The proportion of partial-grey-morph calves produced by black cows (XGXG) suggests that the reproductive success of grey-morph males was equal to that of black males, however, larger sample sizes are required to determine whether grey-morph males tend to have shorter sighting histories. The reproductive success of white-blaze males appeared similar to that of black males among whales off Argentina. There were significantly fewer white-blaze calves than expected off South Africa, which could be due to white-blaze males experiencing reduced reproductive success or to sighting blases that result in white-marked calves being misidentified as black calves. The relative frequencies of both types of dorsal color markings varied between the South African and Argentinian right whale populations, suggesting limited nuclear gene flow between these populations; analyses using other nuclear markers are under way to confirm the extent of gene flow.     

Increasing the availability of food and the reproduction ofPoecilus cupreus in a cereal field by strip-management

The spruce bud moth,Zeiraphera canadensis Mutt & Free. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), displayed a bimodal activity pattern in two young white spruce,Picea glauca (Moench) Voss, plantations. During the day, when temperatures were highest and relative humidities lowest, most moths remained in the lower crown, presumably in response to the risk of hygrothermal stress and/or predation. Flight activity peaks occurred near dawn and dusk. Moths moved higher in the crowns shortly after sunset and many were observed flying above the tree canopy. This activity peak was associated with oviposition and mating. Oviposition started at sunset and continued for approximately 3 h. Females probed oviposition sites with their ovipositor before ovipositing, suggesting that they use sensillae on the ovipositor to evaluate potential oviposition sites. Most mating occurred between 22∶00 and 04∶00 h. Males hovered adjacent to branches containing females before alighting. After alighting, males usually approached to within 2–5 cm of females and then remained motionless for a short time before attempting mounting, indicating that some short-range communication usually occurs prior to mating. Reduced flight activity between midnight and dawn was not due to low temperatures, which were above the minimal temperatures for flight for males (10°C) and females (12°C) determined in the laboratory.     

Finger dermatoglyphics of the Tibetans

Finger prints of 156 Tibetan males and 150 females have been analyzed. Whorls are more abundant in Tibetan males (60.24%) than in females (48.67%). The index of pattern intensity shows a higher value in males (15.95) than the females (14.65). The bimanual differences (both in males and females) are not statistically significant for the occurrence of pattern on the digits of the right and left hands. However, the difference between the sexes for the occurrence of patterns on the finger balls, are statistically significant. Ridge counting was done for each finger. On all fingers, Tibetan males have higher ridge-counts than females. The possible tendency for the right hands to possess higher ridge-counts cannot be demonstrated statistically. Tibetans show greater affinity with the Southern Mongoloids in the frequency distributions of pattern types on the finger balls. However, a more detailed dermatoglyphic study of all the Mongoloid populations in South East Asia, Central Asia and Far East would yield information of great value in disclosing the palmar pattern distributions among the Mongoloids.     

Behaviours of collared and white-lipped peccaries (Tayassu tajacu andT. pecari) in relation to sexual receptivity of the female

Changes in behaviours of the two peccary species,Tayassu tajacu Linnaeus, 1758 andT. pecari Link, 1795 between non-receptive and receptive periods were followed by presenting females to males daily for 15 minutes. InT. tajacu, the rank order of behaviours, similar in both sexes during the non-receptive period, differs during receptivity. Contact behaviours decrease in males, whereas sexual ones progress. The same tendency appears in females. Inhibited bites replace markings of partner as the most common behaviour in both sexes. InT. pecari, the rank order of behaviours always differs between sexes. When females become receptive, the differences from the non-receptive period are neither numerous nor significant. The most common behaviour of males, previously markings of partner, becomes mounts, whereas in females agonistic behaviours reinforce their dominance. In this species, the only behaviours that increase are those leading directly to copulation or those of an agonistic nature. In both species, females show more agonistic behaviours than males (mainly inhibited bites inT. tajacu, truly aggressive ones inT. pecari). When females are receptive, males ofT. pecari become less active, contrary toT. tajacu where both sexes double their activity. InT. tajacu, most behaviours vary significantly in relation to the progesterone level, contrary to the other species. These pecularities appear correlated to herd composition and organisation.     

Transition of nonharem male to harem male status in the short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx

The short-nosed fruit bat Cynopterus sphinx is known to exhibit resource defence polygyny as its primary mating strategy. Tent construction by harem males to recruit females represents a heavy investment of time and effort, which is not done by nonharem males. The previously unobserved mode of harem formation by the solitary males was studied using mark-recapture and radio-telemetry. In our observation, the solitary males roosting near to harems started recruiting females by occupying the tent abandoned by the harems. This result suggests that the transition of nonharem male to harem male status possibly by a previously unobserved mode and the female recruitment is associated with resource (roost). It implies that the solitary males are actively involving in female recruitment and also presumably mating.     

Onychomycosis in Rome,Italy

This report presents the results of a study conducted between 1985 and 1994 on onychomycosis observed in the city of Rome. Six thousand six hundred and eighty eight patients were examined during this period. Among them 1,762 (26.3%) were affected by fungal nail infections. Because the etiologic agents could not be isolated in 105 cases (6%), the results refer to 1,657 subjects (24.8% of the total), presenting with positive microscopic and cultural examinations. Thirty eight patients (2.3%) had onychomycosis of both their hands and feet.From an etiological point of view, 59.1% of the nail infections were caused by yeasts, 23.2% were infected with dermatophytes and 17.6% by non-dermatophytic fungi. The etiology of onychomycosis of the hands differed from that of the feet. Yeasts were primarily responsible for onychomycosis of the hands (86.2%), while dermatophytes caused tinea unguium peduum (48%). Fungal fingernail infections by Candida spp. were the most common (50.3%), followed by those of the feet by dermatophytes (20%). Candida albicans was responsible for 70.6% of the hand infections but for only 15.9% of those of the feet. Trichophyton rubrum and T mentagrophytes were the most common dermatophytes, mainly causing toenail infections (23.4% and 21%, respectively), while Aspergillus spp., Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Acremonium spp. and Aspergillus niger were the most common non-dermatophytes observed.With regard to sex, the fungal nail infections were more widespread in women (72.1%) and in subjects of both sexes over the age of 50.     

Comparisons for Body Mass Index and Body Fat Percent Among Puerto Ricans,Blacks, Whites and Asians Living in the New York City Area

The latest data (NHANES III) from the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) show that the black population has the highest proportion of overweight among all adult populations in the United States. The present study compared the body mass index (BMI) and body fat percent from dual-photon absorptiometry in 1,324 healthy adults aged 18 to 107 years recruited from four ethnic groups in the New York City area; 523 whites, 280 blacks, 267 Asians and 254 Puerto Ricans. Puerto Ricans had the largest BMI and the largest percent of subjects with body weight more than 120% of their ideal weight, and the largest fat percent of the four ethnic groups: 76% of Puerto Rican males had fat percent above the median value for white males (fat percent = 19.6%) and 95% of Puerto Rican females had fat percent above the median for white females (fat percent = 30.8%). Asians had the smallest BMI, but 63% of them had fat percent above the median values for whites in each gender. Puerto Ricans also had the largest waist-to-hip ratios among the four ethnic groups. In blacks, the percent of subjects with fat percent larger than the median for whites was slightly smaller than that for Puerto Ricans, 64% and 82% of males and females respectively. These results differ from the latest NCHS data and show that Puerto Ricans in this sample are heavier and fatter than blacks.     

Mating behavior and rapid concealing of nuptial coloration in males of the Fishgod Blenny <Emphasis Type="Italic">Malacoctenus ebisui</Emphasis> (Teleostei: Blenniiformes)

Courting males often face the trade-off of attracting the attention of both females and predators. Rapid color change, a relatively simple solution to this dilemma, is described for nuptial males of the Fishgod Blenny Malacoctenus ebisui (Teleostei: Blenniiformes) from direct observations at three rocky reefs in the Mexican Pacific. Nuptial males showed three dark bars on a white background that covered the anterior part of the body, and three dark bars posteriorly forming a solid dark patch along the midline. The head was black with a prominent white area on the lower portion of the iris of each eye, two white patches on the upper jaw, and one central white patch on the lower jaw. When an intensely colored male was disturbed the white patches on the eyes quickly disappeared, while the other white markings became muted apparently by rapid expansion of melanophores. This relatively simple system permits males of the Fishgod Blenny to rapidly suppress their conspicuous coloration in response to perceived threats. Mating behavior of the Fishgod Blenny observed at Bahia Chamela is similar to that reported for other labrisomid blennies, with males repeatedly nudging the side of the female and both sexes alternately performing quivering movements.     

Males with a Faster Courtship Display have More White Spots and Higher Pairing Success in the Diamond Firetail,Stagonopleura guttata

There is growing evidence that female mate choice could be based on a combination of multiple signals that often involve both ornamental colourful traits and behavioural displays. The Diamond Firetail is an Australian finch with a variable number of white spots on their black flank feathers. The number of white spots is a dimorphic characteristic: females have more spots than males, and males prefer females with many spots. Previously, we found assortative pairing for spot number despite the absence of experimental evidence for female preference for male spot number. Here, we test whether the male behavioural courtship display (bobbing while waving a grass stem) correlates with male spot number and pairing success. We also test whether male spot number predicts the outcome (winner or loser) of intrasexual competition over courtship materials (grass stem, perch, nest site). Males with many spots had higher pairing success, and male spot number correlated with the intensity of courtship display. In a multivariate statistical analysis, male courtship display was the stronger predictor of male pairing success. Finally, male spot number predicted the outcome of intrasexual interactions: males with many spots consistently won contests over grass stems, perches and nest sites. We suggest that intrasexual selection could favour male spot number, whereas courtship intensity appears to be under stronger intersexual selection.     

Natal dispersal in relation to population density and sex ratio in the field vole,Microtus agrestis

Summary In a sample of 240 juvenile field voles 8% of the males and 22% of the females reached sexual maturity within their natal home range. Among individuals retrapped as adults, 58% of males and 23% of females had dispersed, i.e. had moved more than one home range diameter. The mean distance moved for males (58.5 m) exceeded that for females (28.6 m). Male movement distances were negatively associated with total density, and with density of adult females, but not with male density. Female movements were not related to population density. There were no relation between sex ratio and distance moved. The distribution of distances moved for both males and females fit a geometrical distribution, suggesting the importance of competitive processes.