Biodiversity,biological uncertainty,and setting conservation priorities

In a world of massive extinctions where not all taxa can be saved, how ought biologists to decide their preservation priorities? When biologists make recommendations regarding conservation, should their analyses be based on scientific criteria, on public or lay criteria, on economic or some other criteria? As a first step in answering this question, we examine the issue of whether biologists ought to try to save the endangered Florida panther, a well known “glamour” taxon. To evaluate the merits of panther preservation, we examine three important arguments of biologists who are skeptical about the desirability of panther preservation. These arguments are (1) that conservation dollars ought to be spent in more efficient ways than panther preservation; (2) that biologists and conservationists ought to work to preserve species before subspecies; and (3) that biologists and conservationists ought to work to save habitats before species or subspecies. We conclude that, although all three arguments are persuasive, none of them provides convincing grounds for foregoing panther preservation in favor of other, more scientifically significant conservation efforts. Our conclusion is based, in part, on the argument that biologists ought to employ ethical, as well as scientific, rationality in setting conservation priorities and that ethical rationality may provide persuasive grounds for preserving taxa that often are not viewed by biologists as of great importance.     

Biodiversity and conservation of insects and other invertebrates

The thematic issue of Biodiversity and Conservation devoted to the biodiversity and conservation of insects and other invertebrates is introduced. The issue comprises 23 original research papers covering diverse habitats from forests to grasslands, ponds and rivers to coasts, and the tropics to boreal regions. Amongst the organisms discussed are ants, bees, beetles, butterflies, crabs, microgastropods, millipedes, spiders, and weevils. Some of the difficulties of conserving the most species-rich groups of eukaryotes, in the face of ignorance as to their identities and positions in ecological processes, are noted and the precautionary principle is seen as a pragmatic and responsible approach.     

Keep all the pieces: Systematics 2000 and world conservation

Conserving biological diversity requires a major effort in conducting survey and inventories, establishing priorities, selecting protected areas, managing resources and monitoring the effects of management. Systematics has an important contribution to make to each of these five major activities. Further, the new Convention on Biological Diversity requires systematics information to support action under virtually all of its substantive conservation and sustainable use articles. It seems apparent that large reference collections contribute directly to development, and development assistance agencies should recognize that investing in maintaining these collections is a legitimate form of development assistance.     

三峡工程中的生物多样性保护

三峡工程导致长江水文情势改变,水库淹没和移民搬迁,成为影响生物多样性的直接的,主要的因素,本文根据最新调查和研究成果,评述了三峡工程对生物多样性的影响,介绍了正在采取的措施及其效果。水库淹没和移民搬迁是影响陆生生物的主要因素。三峡库区有144个植物群系,6388种高等植物,3418种昆虫,500种陆生脊椎动物,其中36个植物群系受到部分或全部淹没影响,4种地方特有植物的野生种群遭到淹没（1种全淹,3种部分淹没）。水文情势改变是影响水生生物的主要因素,长江水系共有鱼类350种,浮游动植物,底栖动物,水生植物等1085种。其中三峡工程对部分珍稀大型水生动物,40余种特有鱼类和“四大家鱼”的影响值得重视,我们将通过建立长期的生物监测站,设立保护区和保护点,采用人工繁殖放流等措施保护生物多样性,减少三峡工程对生物多样性的不利影响,避免因三峡工程而造成物种丧失。     

Diversity, disturbance, and sustainable use of Neotropical forests: insects as indicators for conservation monitoring

Sustainable use of tropical forest systems requires continuous monitoring of biological diversity and ecosystem functions. This can be efficiently done with early warning (short-cycle) indicator groups of non-economical insects, whose population levels and resources are readily measured. Twenty-one groups of insects are evaluated as focal indicator taxa for rapid assessment of changes in Neotropical forest systems. Composite environmental indices for heterogeneity, richness, and natural disturbance are correlated positively with butterfly diversity in 56 Neotropical sites studied over many years. Various components of alpha, beta and gamma-diversity show typical responses to increased disturbance and different land-use regimes. Diversity often increases with disturbance near or below natural levels, but some sensitive species and genes are eliminated at very low levels of interference. Agricultural and silvicultural mosaics with over 30% conversion, including selective logging of three or more large trees per hectare, show shifts in species composition with irreversible loss of many components of the butterfly community, indicating non-sustainable land and resource use and reduction of future options. Monitoring of several insect indicator groups by local residents in a species-rich Brazilian Amazon extractive reserve has helped suggest guidelines for cologically, economically, and socially sustainable zoning and use regimes.     

生物多样性资源：利用、保护与管理

生物多样性在本质上是一种具有多重价值,高度综合的资源形式,是人类社会生存与发展的物质基础,在人类社会发展过程中,生物多样性资源利用与保护之间日益表现为彼此冲突的特征,但并非不可调和。本文认为,协调二者关系,实现生物多样性资源可持续利用和区域社会经济可持续发展的根本途径是生物多样性资源管理,它由主体层,客体层和目标层构成,应该具备主体多元化,参与的广泛性,过程的动态性与持续性,尺度性与地域性和公平性等基本特征,主体层是由以人为核心的各种组织形式构成的,是从社会经济系统中分化出来的一个职能层次;客体层也就是管理的对象层,是生物多样性资源系统和社会经济系统的耦合体,目标层包括生物多样性资源的可持续利用,生态文明的构建与发展和区域社会经济的可持续发展,生态文明是生物多样性资源可持续利用和区域社会可持续发展的根本保障,其中,主体层和客体层构成了生物多样性资源管理的实体部分,而目标层则是生物多样性资源管理的参照体系,生物多样性资源管理包括管理范围界定,问题辨识,目标确定,政策制定与方案运筹,实施,监测与评价,适应性调整6个基本步骤,是一个复杂的多层次动态反馈过程,这一过程中,科学研究发挥着非常重要的作用,因此应该在加强生物多样性科学研究的同时融合科学与管理的关系,使科学成果真正转化成效的管理行为。     

滇西北县域生物多样性本底调查与评估

中国是世界上生物多样性最丰富的国家之一, 同时也是生物多样性受威胁最严重的国家之一。为了有效保护生物多样性, 2010年国务院批准实施了《中国生物多样性保护战略与行动计划(2010-2030年)》, 划定了32个陆地生物多样性保护优先区, 并设定了开展优先区生物多样性本底调查的战略目标、优先领域与优先行动。为此, 2010-2011年, 环境保护部联合中国科学院和高校的科研人员, 在滇西北开展了18个县的以县域为单元的生物多样性本底示范调查与研究。调查内容包括生态系统(植被类型)和物种两个层次。生态系统主要调查县域内植被类型的多样性, 完成了以群系为单位的植被类型编目; 物种层次主要调查县域内高等植物、脊椎动物、大型真菌的物种多样性组成、数量和用途等, 分析了特有物种和珍稀濒危物种数量等, 完成了县域物种编目。本文基于调查结果, 比较研究了不同县域间的生物多样性组成, 发现植被类型(108个群系)和物种(高等植物4,481种、脊椎动物625种、大型真菌222种)最丰富的县均为玉龙县。同时, 与历史记录对比研究发现, 滇西北的生物多样性分布数据十分欠缺, 严重影响了生物多样性保护的客观有效决策。生物多样性本底调查是生物多样性保护的一项基础工作, 本研究为中国未来开展大规模的生物多样性本底调查与评估提供了案例。     

Biodiversity: past, present and future

On 12-15 May 2011, a diverse group of students, researchers and practitioners from across Canada and around the world met in Banff, Alberta, to discuss the many facets of biodiversity science at the 6th Annual Meeting of the Canadian Society for Ecology and Evolution.     

Linking woodland key habitat inventory and forest inventory data to prioritize districts needing conservation efforts

Woodland key habitat (WKH) inventories have been conducted in northern European countries, with the aim to create networks of minimally disturbed forest stands for protection. The goal of national forest inventory is to provide information relevant to forest management, such as on forest types, trees species composition, age structure and wood volume. The aim of this study was to link these two inventory databases to identify districts of Latvia most deficient in connectivity and habitat quality, in order to prioritize districts needing conservation effort. As an example, the area of deciduous forest with nemoral tree species (oak, ash, lime, maple and elm) and aspen was chosen. These forests provide habitat for a specific community of epiphytes. Using information in the WKH database, habitat quality in different districts of Latvia was estimated by the frequencies of occurrence of structural elements and selected indicator epiphyte species in nemoral tree species and aspen WKHs. Using digital data in the national forest inventory database, fragmentation metrics were determined for forests that, according to age and tree species composition, could potentially be nemoral tree and aspen WKHs. On a regional level, the lowest habitat quality in WKH occurred in districts that had the least fragmentation of potential WKH forest. In the less fragmented areas, the habitat quality of the existing WKH will likely increase in the future, and could be promoted by management to create structural elements typical of natural forests. The districts with the most fragmented nemoral and aspen forests, contained WKHs with the best habitat quality. A focus on protection should be given to these stands as they are the most likely to support source populations, and there is a need to improve spatial continuity of suitable tree substrate in these areas.     

Forest ecosystem inventory and monitoring as a framework for terrestrial natural renewable resource survey programmes

ABSTRACT

The established practice of forest ecosystem inventory and monitoring is recognised as a main support for terrestrial natural renewable resource survey programmes. Inventory and monitoring programmes focused on an overall assessment of ecosystem attributes evolving into global environmental survey programmes have been devised, but implementation is still quite contradictory. The state-of-the-art is discussed here, with special reference to the European Union and Italy. Topical issues are reviewed, with selective concern to: remote sensing capability, probability sampling, forest type (habitat) classification and landscape ecology, sustainable management indicators. Benefits brought by information technology are highlighted. Its development and the implementation of approaches based on a sound “per habitat” landscape ecological perspective will bring unique benefits, thus leading to an effective integration among sector surveys aimed at global environmental inventory/monitoring.     

西双版纳生物多样性保护和可持续发展研究:本论文集的说明

西双版纳是保存有大面积热带森林的地区,倍受海内外的关注.从本世纪30～40年代到90年代的研究表明西双版纳处于热带亚热带过渡地带的特殊性,其生态环境和生物成分不仅在生物演化中意义显要而且也是发展地方经济的重要资源.西双版纳为多民族聚居区,居住着傣族、爱尼族约20个民族或未定族群.各民族有其特殊的土地和自然资源利用传统.随着人口增加和经济发展,特别是橡胶种植的扩大,严重地损坏了西双版纳的热带森林及其生态环境,也使优秀传统文化在丧失.保护生态环境和优秀传统文化成了西双版纳可持续发展的关键.     

Biodiversity conservation in China: Legislation, Plans and Measures

China is one of the megadiversity countries with over 30,000 species of higher plants and 6347 species of vertebrates, including numerous endemic species and relict species. The vast territory, with its various climates and landforms have formed complex and manifold habitats and rich diversity of ecosystems. China is a signatory country to several international conventions and agreements related to biodiversity and has established a legislation framework for biodiversity conservation. State, interdepartmental, departmental plans related to biodiversity have been made, such as Chinas Agenda 21, the Chinese Country Study on Biological Diversity, the Chinese Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan, the Chinese Environmental Protection Action Plan, and the Guideline for Nature Reserve Development Planning in China (1996–2010). Great efforts have also been made to protect natural resources and the environment, including policies for in situ and ex situ conservation, ecological construction, scientific research, education and training, and international cooperation. However, under the high pressure of population and economy, severe contradiction exists between conservation and the exploitation of biodiversity. This paper describes such achievements and related problems.     

中国生物多样性保护优先区域生物多样性调查和评估方法

我国高度重视生物多样性保护,而开展本底调查是生物多样性保护的基础。但以往研究对苔藓、生物多样性相关传统知识等关注不够,而且调查大部分集中在生物多样性丰富区域。随着我国社会经济的快速发展,全国土地利用格局和生态环境发生了巨大变化,已有的部分调查成果数据与实际情况不符,难以满足我国生物多样性保护管理需求,因此亟待组织开展全国生物多样性调查与评估工作。在整理历史和现有生物多样性调查技术的基础上,推荐采用网格法开展全国生物多样性调查,按照10 km×10 km分辨率,将全国划分为97109个调查网格;制定了陆生高等植物、植被、陆生哺乳动物、鸟类、两栖类和爬行类、昆虫、大型真菌、内陆鱼类、内陆浮游生物、内陆大型底栖无脊椎动物、内陆周丛藻类以及生物多样性相关传统知识12个类群县域生物多样性调查评估技术规定;建立了全国统一、动态更新、信息共享的生物多样性数据库和信息化管理平台。从调查内容规范、评估指标体系和技术要求等方面探讨了陆域生态系统与物种调查、重点河流水生生物调查、重点物种调查、生物多样性相关传统知识调查技术方法,并构建生物多样性综合评估指标体系,规范了生物多样性保护优先区域生物多样性调查和评估。技术方法在横断山南、武陵山、太行山、西双版纳等生物多样性保护优先区域得到应用,同时北京、江苏、浙江和湖北等省份和祁连山、武夷山等区域也采用该技术体系开展调查,网格法得到逐步推广,并获得大量的生物多样性基础数据,为我国生物多样性保护和可持续利用、生物多样性公约履约等提供了基础数据。     

Biodiversity and biodiversity conservation in Yunnan, China

Yunnan, an inland province at a low latitude and high elevation, lying between 21°09–29°15 N and 97°32–106°12 E in southwestern China, has a vast territory with diversified and unique nature resources. There are more than 18000 high plant species (51.6% of China's total) and 1836 vertebrate species (54.8% of China's total) living in Yunnan on a land area of 39.4 × 10⁴km², i.e., only 4.1% of China's total. Among 15000 seed plants found in Yunnan there are 151 rare and endangered plant species (42.6% of China's protected plants). Out of 335 China priority protected wild animals, Yunnan has 243 species, accounting for 72.5% of China's total, 15% of which are species endemic to Yunnan. However, Yunnan's biodiversity is faced with the menace of excessive exploitation of resources and changes in environmental conditions caused by the activities of an expanding human population. This paper discusses the background, the composition, and the structure of Yunnan's biodiversity. Its biodiversity fragility and the threatened situation are also discussed. Suggestions and recommendations on the strategy and actions of Yunnan biodiversity conservation and sustainable development are proposed.     

Viral evolution and insects as a possible virologic turning table

Summary Three lines of observation demonstrate the role of arthropods in transmission and evolution of viruses. a) Recent outbreaks of viruses from their niches took place and insects have played a major role in propagating the viruses. b) Examination of the list of viral families and their hosts shows that many infect invertebrates (I) and vertebrates (V) or (I) and plants (P) or all kingdoms (VIPs). This notion holds true irrespective of the genome type. At first glance the argument seems to be weak in the case of enveloped and non-enveloped RNA viruses with single-stranded (ss) segmented or non-segmented genomes of positive (+) or negative polarity. Here, there are several families infecting V or P only; no systematic relation to arthropods is found. c) In the non-enveloped plant viruses with ss RNA genomes there is a strong tendency for segmentation and individual packaging of the genome pieces. This is in contrast to ss+ RNA animal viruses and can only be explained by massive transmission by seed or insects or both, because individual packaging necessitates a multihit infection. Comparisons demonstrate relationships in the nonstructural proteins of double-stranded and ss+ RNA viruses irrespective of host range, segmentation, and envelope. Similar conclusions apply for the negative-stranded RNA viruses. Thus, viral supergroups can be created that infect V or P and exploit arthropods for infection or transmission or both. Examples of such relationships and explanations for viral evolution are reviewed and the arthropod orders important for cell culture are given.     

Biodiversity loss, trophic skew and ecosystem functioning

Experiments testing biodiversity effects on ecosystem functioning have been criticized on the basis that their random‐assembly designs do not reflect deterministic species loss in nature. Because previous studies, and their critics, have focused primarily on plants, however, it is underappreciated that the most consistent such determinism involves biased extinction of large consumers, skewing trophic structure and substantially changing conclusions about ecosystem impacts that assume changing plant diversity alone. Both demography and anthropogenic threats render large vertebrate consumers more vulnerable to extinction, on average, than plants. Importantly, species loss appears biased toward strong interactors among animals but weak interactors among plants. Accordingly, available evidence suggests that loss of a few predator species often has impacts comparable in magnitude to those stemming from a large reduction in plant diversity. Thus, the dominant impacts of biodiversity change on ecosystem functioning appear to be trophically mediated, with important implications for conservation.     

Biodiversity, phylogeography, biogeography and conservation: lemurs as an example

The lemurs of Madagascar represent a spectacular example of adaptive radiation among primates. Given the special setting under which they evolved (i.e. long isolation, geographical location, geological relief), they provide excellent models for study in many realms, and at different levels and scales, including diversity. At the same time, they occur in a 'hottest hot spot' region for biodiversity conservation. Although there is no single definition of biodiversity, the most commonly used units to measure biodiversity are species-species richness, species abundance and, for conservation purposes in particular, species endemism. However, what a species actually is or how, precisely, it should be defined are unresolved issues. Many species concepts have been proposed and several have been used in primatology in recent years. Nowadays, one of the more common approaches to measuring diversity, and eventually inferring species status, is to look at genetic diversity as reflected by mitochondrial DNA differences. Not enough attention has been paid, however, to the different levels at which genetic differences may occur. Lemurs provide instructive examples to highlight the questions involved in species recognition and definition. Using lemurs as examples, I will highlight the strengths and limitations of some analytical tools, including phylogeography and cladistic biogeography and, I will, in particular, emphasize the questions arising at the interface of scientific and conservation perceptions, both of which influence decisions in the field of biodiversity preservation.     

Biodiversity and conservation of yeasts

In the framework of initiatives, aiming at a better definition of biodiversity in microorganisms and of its role in ecosystem function, the biology of yeasts is revisited with particular emphasis on their ecology and classification. The limited number of different species isolated from, as well as the exceedingly low yeast cell counts in, most natural environments are discussed and possible explanations presented. The impact of the use of molecular taxonomic techniques of classification on the extent of biodiversity within yeasts is also debated, as well as the possible repercussions of more aggressive pre-isolation treatments of samples.     

Biodiversity and biogeography of Henderson Island's insects

Henderson Island is an example of a raised coral atoll, and as such supports a much more diverse biota than geographically similar low atolls. It is also, due to its remote location, largely undisturbed by the activities of humans. It is therefore unique in the Pacific Ocean, and comparable to Aldabra in the Indian Ocean. Biogeographically it is also interesting as it is amongst the most easterly islands of the Indo-West Pacific region, and has been largely colonized by species dispersing from island to island across the ocean from the west. New and extensive collections of insects were made in 1991. Although not fully identified yet, it is clear that the fauna is depauperate, with only about 180 species known to date. Despite its easterly location almost all species are derived from the west, and much of the fauna is likely to be indigenous. The most diverse orders are the Lepidoptera ( c. 53 spp.), Coleoptera ( c. 38 spp.), Diptera ( c. 37 spp.), Hymenoptera ( c. 21 spp.), Homoptera ( c. 14 spp.) and Heteroptera (4 spp.). Of particular interest are the weevils, Heteroptera and Homoptera which exhibit considerable endemism with perhaps some examples of intra-island radiation. Although depauperate, Henderson supports a much larger insect fauna than that of nearby Ducie Atoll (total known insect fauna =15 spp).