Protein folding and diseases

For most of proteins to be active, they need well-defined three-dimensional structures alone or in complex. Folding is a process through which newly synthesized proteins get to the native state. Protein folding inside cells is assisted by various chaperones and folding factors, and misfolded proteins are eliminated by the ubiquitin-proteasome degradation system to ensure high fidelity of protein expression. Under certain circumstances, misfolded proteins escape the degradation process, yielding to deposit of protein aggregates such as loop-sheet polymer and amyloid fibril. Diseases characterized by insoluble deposits of proteins have been recognized for long time and are grouped as conformational diseases. Study of protein folding mechanism is required for better understanding of the molecular pathway of such conformational diseases.     

Protein kinase C beta (PKC beta): normal functions and diseases

PKC beta I and PKC beta II are DAG- and Ca(2+)-dependent conventional or classical isoforms of protein kinase C. Generated by alternative splicing from a single gene, they differ at their C-terminal 50 (beta I) or 52 (beta II) residues. They are expressed as major PKC isoforms in a variety of tissues, and thus the functions ascribed to "PKC" based on early studies using phorbol esters and PKC inhibitors could be attributed to them. As tools to probe into isoform-specific functions have recently become available, our understanding of the normal functions of these isoforms has dramatically increased. This minireview will focus mainly on two areas of signal transduction where the roles of PKC beta I and PKC beta II are relatively well-characterized: immunoreceptor and insulin receptor systems. Their involvement in disorders due to pertubations in these signaling systems, i.e., immunodeficiencies and diabetes, is also reviewed. Finally, patterns of PKC action in these and other biologic systems are discussed.     

蛋白质构象病

蛋白质的空间结构又称为三维结构或构象（conformation）,特定的空间构象是蛋白质发挥其各种功能的结构基础。由于蛋白质担负着复杂的生化反应,因此在生物合成以后,蛋白质本身也经历着复杂的生理过程;蛋白质自翻译以后,需进行一系列的翻译后过程,包括跨膜转运、修饰加工、折叠复性、生化反应、生物降解等,这些过程都伴随着蛋白质的结构转换。随着对疯牛病的研究,人们发现：蛋白质分子的氨基酸序列虽不改变,但其空间结构或构象的改变也能引起疾病。同时,越来越多的研究表明,一些遗传性疾病是由于基因突变导致了蛋白质的错误折叠,这些突变并不直接影响蛋白质的功能结构域,但由于蛋白质的错误折叠,干扰了其正确运输,形成对细胞有毒性作用的聚积物。     

Zinc Modulates the Interaction of Protein C and Activated Protein C with Endothelial Cell Protein C Receptor

Zinc is an essential trace element for human nutrition and is critical to the structure, stability, and function of many proteins. Zinc ions were shown to enhance activation of the intrinsic pathway of coagulation but down-regulate the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. The protein C pathway plays a key role in blood coagulation and inflammation. At present there is no information on whether zinc modulates the protein C pathway. In the present study we found that Zn²⁺ enhanced the binding of protein C/activated protein C (APC) to endothelial cell protein C receptor (EPCR) on endothelial cells. Binding kinetics revealed that Zn²⁺ increased the binding affinities of protein C/APC to EPCR. Equilibrium dialysis with ⁶⁵Zn²⁺ revealed that Zn²⁺ bound to the Gla domain as well as sites outside of the Gla domain of protein C/APC. Intrinsic fluorescence measurements suggested that Zn²⁺ binding induces conformational changes in protein C/APC. Zn²⁺ binding to APC inhibited the amidolytic activity of APC, but the inhibition was reversed by Ca²⁺. Zn²⁺ increased the rate of APC generation on endothelial cells in the presence of physiological concentrations of Ca²⁺ but did not further enhance increased APC generation obtained in the presence of physiological concentrations of Mg²⁺ with Ca²⁺. Zn²⁺ had no effect on the anticoagulant activity of APC. Zn²⁺ enhanced APC-mediated activation of protease activated receptor 1 and p44/42 MAPK. Overall, our data show that Zn²⁺ binds to protein C/APC, which results in conformational changes in protein C/APC that favor their binding to EPCR.     

蛋白质C

血液中的蛋白质C被激活后,通过多种方式促进凝血因子Xa和Ⅱa的形成．起到抗血液凝固、抗血栓形成的作用。蛋白质C功能异常,是一些血栓形成的原因。     

Protein misfolding and prion diseases.

The prion diseases provide an intriguing connection between protein folding and neurodegenerative disease. In this review, I explore that importance of protein folding and misfolding in the prion diseases. Thermodynamic and kinetic models are examined in an effort to understand infectious, inherited and sporadic forms of these diseases. These concepts can be generalized to gain insight into other disorders of protein aggregation and deposition such as Alzheimer's disease.     

Protein crystallography and infectious diseases.

The current rapid growth in the number of known 3-dimensional protein structures is producing a database of structures that is increasingly useful as a starting point for the development of new medically relevant molecules such as drugs, therapeutic proteins, and vaccines. This development is beautifully illustrated in the recent book, Protein structure: New approaches to disease and therapy (Perutz, 1992). There is a great and growing promise for the design of molecules for the treatment or prevention of a wide variety of diseases, an endeavor made possible by the insights derived from the structure and function of crucial proteins from pathogenic organisms and from man. We present here 2 illustrations of structure-based drug design. The first is the prospect of developing antitrypanosomal drugs based on crystallographic, ligand-binding, and molecular modeling studies of glycolytic glycosomal enzymes from Trypanosomatidae. These unicellular organisms are responsible for several tropical diseases, including African and American trypanosomiases, as well as various forms of leishmaniasis. Because the target enzymes are also present in the human host, this project is a pioneering study in selective design. The second illustrative case is the prospect of designing anti-cholera drugs based on detailed analysis of the structure of cholera toxin and the closely related Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin. Such potential drugs can be targeted either at inhibiting the toxin's receptor binding site or at blocking the toxin's intracellular catalytic activity. Study of the Vibrio cholerae and E. coli toxins serves at the same time as an example of a general approach to structure-based vaccine design. These toxins exhibit a remarkable ability to stimulate the mucosal immune system, and early results have suggested that this property can be maintained by engineered fusion proteins based on the native toxin structure. The challenge is thus to incorporate selected epitopes from foreign pathogens into the native framework of the toxin such that crucial features of both the epitope and the toxin are maintained. That is, the modified toxin must continue to evoke a strong mucosal immune response, and this response must be directed against an epitope conformation characteristic of the original pathogen.     

Protein carbonylation in human diseases

Oxidative modifications of enzymes and structural proteins play a significant role in the aetiology and/or progression of several human diseases. Protein carbonyl content is the most general and well-used biomarker of severe oxidative protein damage. Human diseases associated with protein carbonylation include Alzheimer's disease, chronic lung disease, chronic renal failure, diabetes and sepsis. Rapid recent progress in the identification of carbonylated proteins should provide new diagnostic (possibly pre-symptomatic) biomarkers for oxidative damage, and yield basic information to aid the establishment an efficacious antioxidant therapy.     

Protein interactions in human genetic diseases

We present a novel method that combines protein structure information with protein interaction data to identify residues that form part of an interaction interface. Our prediction method can retrieve interaction hotspots with an accuracy of 60% (at a 20% false positive rate). The method was applied to all mutations in the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database, predicting 1,428 mutations to be related to an interaction defect. Combining predicted and hand-curated sets, we discuss how mutations affect protein interactions in general.     

蛋白质C缺陷及其检测方法

蛋白质C(Protein C，PC)是一种维生素K依赖性的丝氧酸激酶，在止血系统中起重要的调节作用。PC基因异常或一些后天因素可造成PC缺陷，这些因素常共同作用引发静脉血栓。PC总量测定法可用于测定PC总量和PC缺陷分型。PC抗凝活性测定法可测定PC抗凝血活性，其中发色底物法是诊断PC缺陷的首选方法。探讨了实际使用这些方法可能会遇到的一些问题及解决方法。     

Protein kinase C and tumor promoters

The complexity of PKC has made it difficult to define the precise biochemical processes associated with the various PKC-related cellular responses observed. In the past year, we have seen progress in complementary approaches that are helping to solve the puzzles. These include purification and characterization of individual isozymes, expression of normal and mutant PKCs, immunolocalization, and identification of specific activators and inhibitors. All of these will be useful in identifying the primary targets of PKC phosphorylation and their function.     

Protein kinase C isozymes and addiction

Protein kinase C (PKC) has long been recognized an important family of enzymes that regulate numerous aspects of neuronal signal transduction, neurotransmitter synthesis, release and reuptake, receptor and ion channel function, neuronal excitability, development, and gene expression. Much evidence has implicated PKCs in the effects of several drugs of abuse, and in behavioral responses to these drugs. The present review summarizes the effects of both acute and chronic exposure to various drugs of abuse on individual PKC isozymes in the brain. In addition, we summarize recent studies utilizing mice with targeted deletions of the genes for PKCγ and PKCɛ. These studies suggest that individual PKC isozymes play a role in the development of drug dependence and addiction.     

蛋白激酶C与吗啡耐受

蛋白激酶C(protein kinase C,PKC)属于AGC蛋白激酶家族(即PKA/PKG/PKC激酶家族),在吗啡介导的μ-阿片受体脱敏及吗啡耐受中具有重要作用,因此研究PKC的细胞信号传导机制对吗啡耐受的治疗具有重要的临床意义。本文综述了PKC在吗啡耐受中的作用。