Allelic Association: Linkage Disequilibrium Structure and Gene Mapping

The linkage disequilibrium (LD) structure of the human genome is now well understood and characterised for a number of human populations. The LD structure underpins the design and execution of candidate gene and genome-wide association mapping studies. Successful association mapping studies completed to date provide vital new insights into the genetic influences on common diseases, such as diabetes, some cancers and heart disease. The LD structure also presents new avenues of research into the genetic history of human populations, the effects of natural selection and the impact of recombination on the genomic landscape. This review introduces this exciting and complex field by encompassing this range of topics.     

人类混血群体连锁不平衡的遗传学模型与基因定位

人类混血群体可以说是混合群体的一种特例．在无选择、无突变、无限随机交配群体的假定前提下,研究了亲本群体的基因频率对混血群体及其衍生后代群体连锁不平衡结构的影响,导出了各群体连锁不平衡值的表达式,建立了一个估计基因间重组率的简便方法;同时, 采用估算分子标记与QTL之间连锁不平衡系数的统计分析方法,分析了人类混血群体及其衍生后代群体QTL检测与估计的关系,建立了该关系的系列理论公式．研究结果表明,本方法不仅适用于人类疾病(包括复杂遗传疾病)基因定位,而且适合于人类正常基因的定位,同时也适用于人类普通多基因性状的QTL分析．     

Refined Mapping of a Gene Responsible for Fukuyama-Type Congenital Muscular Dystrophy: Evidence for Strong Linkage Disequilibrium

Fukuyama-type congenital muscular dystrophy (FCMD), the second most common form of childhood muscular dystrophy in Japan, is an autosomal recessive severe muscular dystrophy associated with an anomaly of the brain. After our initial mapping of the FCMD locus to chromosome 9q31-33, we further defined the locus within a region of ~5 cM between loci D9S127 and CA246, by homozygosity mapping in patients born to consanguineous marriages and by recombination analyses in other families. We also found evidence for strong linkage disequilibrium between FCMD and a polymorphic microsatellite marker, mfd220, which showed no recombination and a lod score of (Z) 17.49. A “111-bp” allele for the mfd220 locus was observed in 22 (34%) of 64 FCMD chromosomes, but it was present in only 1 of 120 normal chromosomes. This allelic association with FCMD was highly significant (χ² =50.7; P<.0001). Hence, we suspect that the FCMD gene could lie within a few hundred kilobases of the mfd220 locus.     

Mapping and Characterization of the X-Linked Dyskeratosis Congenita (DKC) Gene

We report the precise mapping and characterization of the genomic structure of the human homolog of the rat gene for the nucleolar protein NAP57, which has been reported to be responsible for X-linked dyskeratosis congenita (DKC). This single-copy gene, now called DKC, is transcribed from a CpG island 60 kb centromeric to the factor VIII gene in distal Xq28 and lies tail to tail with the palmitoylated erythrocyte membrane protein gene, MPP1. DKC comprises 15 exons spanning at least 16 kb and is transcribed into a widely expressed 2.6-kb message. Several functional motifs of DKC are assigned to coding sequences specified by individual exons. Analysis of normal female DNA revealed the presence of two polymorphisms in the DKC exons, while mutation analysis of a DKC patient identified a novel single amino acid missense mutation in exon 4. The latter together with exon 3 contain five of the six missense mutations reported so far in the DKC gene.     

Fine-Scale Genetic Mapping Based on Linkage Disequilibrium: Theory and Applications

Linkage-disequilibrium mapping (LDM) recently has been hailed as a powerful statistical method for fine-scale mapping of disease genes. After reviewing its historical background and methodological development, we present a general, mathematical, and conceptually coherent framework for LDM that incorporates multilocus and multiallelic markers and mutational processes at the marker and disease loci. With this framework, we address several issues relevant to fine-scale mapping and propose some efficient computational methods for LDM. We implement various LDM methods that incorporate population growth, recurrent mutation, and marker mutations, on the basis of a general framework. We demonstrate these methods by applying them to published data on cystic fibrosis, Huntington disease, Friedreich ataxia, and progressive myoclonus epilepsy. Since the genes responsible for these diseases all have been cloned, we can evaluate the performance of our methods and can compare ours with that of other methods. Using the proposed methods, we successfully and accurately predicted the locations of genes responsible for these diseases, on the basis of published data only.     

Recovering Power in Association Mapping Panels with Variable Levels of Linkage Disequilibrium

Association mapping has permitted the discovery of major QTL in many species. It can be applied to existing populations and, as a consequence, it is generally necessary to take into account structure and relatedness among individuals in the statistical model to control false positives. We analytically studied power in association studies by computing noncentrality parameter of the tests and its relationship with parameters characterizing diversity (genetic differentiation between groups and allele frequencies) and kinship between individuals. Investigation of three different maize diversity panels genotyped with the 50k SNPs array highlighted contrasted average power among panels and revealed gaps of power of classical mixed models in regions with high linkage disequilibrium (LD). These gaps could be related to the fact that markers are used for both testing association and estimating relatedness. We thus considered two alternative approaches to estimating the kinship matrix to recover power in regions of high LD. In the first one, we estimated the kinship with all the markers that are not located on the same chromosome than the tested SNP. In the second one, correlation between markers was taken into account to weight the contribution of each marker to the kinship. Simulations revealed that these two approaches were efficient to control false positives and were more powerful than classical models.     

Refined Linkage Disequilibrium and Physical Mapping of the Gene Locus for X-Linked Dystonia–Parkinsonism (DYT3)

X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism (XDP) is a recessive disorder characterized by generalized dystonia with some patients exhibiting parkinsonism. The disease gene, DYT3, is located between DXS453 (DXS993) and DXS559, and strongest linkage disequilibrium is found distal to DXS7117 and proximal to DXS559. We have isolated and analyzed four novel polymorphic markers between DXS7117 and DXS559 and, by haplotype analysis, have narrowed the candidate interval to <350 kb. A sequence-ready contig of 700 kb has been constructed spanning DXS7117 to DXS559 and is composed of 35 PACs, BACs, and cosmids. Nine genes and novel ESTs have been mapped into this contig, and mutations in the coding regions and intron-exon borders of two genes have been excluded as the cause of XDP. Several of the other genes and ESTs located within the contig code for proteins implicated in normal brain development and function and are candidates for DYT3.     

拟南芥bso-1突变体的基因定位及表型分析

通过EMS化学诱变在拟南芥Columbia(Col-0)野生型突变体库中筛选获得1株器官显著增大的突变体,命名为big size organ1(bso-1)。遗传分析表明,bso-1受单个隐性核基因控制。表型观察发现,突变体植株的幼苗、花、果荚及种子与野生型相比都表现出明显的增大。组织切片结果显示,突变体种子的增大主要由胚细胞个体增大导致胚体积增大而实现,因此突变体种子的重量也较野生型有明显增加。利用图位克隆方法将相关基因初步定位在4号染色体上SSLP标记T5L19与F28M11之间58kb区间内,生物信息学分析显示此区间内未见调控植物器官大小发育相关的已知基因的报道。该研究结果为进一步克隆bso-1突变体相关基因及探讨其在控制植物器官发育尤其是种子发育过程中的作用奠定了基础。     

Linkage of the Murine Transforming Growth Factor α Gene with Igk, Ly-2, and Fabp1 on Chromosome 6

TGFα is a mitogenic polypeptide found in the conditioned media of transformed cell lines as well as in various solid tumors. Although its physiological role in normal tissues is uncertain, the autocrine action of TGFα on the EGF receptor is postulated to play a role in tumorigenesis. To explore the possibility that pre-existing mouse mutants might have concordance with the mouse TGFα locus (Tgfa) we sought to establish the chromosomal localization of the murine TGFα gene. Using Southern analysis we have detected NcoI and PvuII RFLP in the TGFα gene of progenitor RI mouse strains. These RFLPs have been used to analyze four different RI sets of DNA and to assign Tgfa to the 35-cM region of chromosome 6. Linkage has been established and the data suggest that the distance between Igk and wa-1 anchor loci may be less than 8 cM and that the gene order for the proximal to mid region of mouse chromosome 6 may be: Ggc-Xmmv27-[Brp-1, Lvp-1, Ms6-4]-[Igk, Ly2, Ly3 Odc-rs5, Rn7s-6, Fabp1]-[Tgfa/wa-1]-IL5-R. Homology of synteny has been further defined between the proximal region of mouse chromosome 6 and with the 2p 13-p11 region of human chromosome 2 encompassing TGFA, IGK, CD8A, and FABP1 .     

Substantial Linkage Disequilibrium Across the Dihydrolipoyl Succinyltransferase Gene Region Without Alzheimer's Disease Association

Association of the candidate gene DLST with late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) risk has been suggested on the basis of case-control studies. This gene, located on chromosome 14q24.3, encodes a subunit of a mitochondrial component known to be defective in AD, the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex. Positive reports have correlated different DLST alleles with LOAD, whereas other groups have failed to find any significant association. We therefore reexamined the association of DLST and LOAD in a more ethnically homogeneous series using three additional single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) located within or closely flanking either end of the DLST gene. Pairwise analysis of these SNPs indicated there was strong linkage disequilibrium across the DLST locus. Analysis of complex genotypes or haplotypes based upon all five SNP loci failed to identify a LOAD risk allele, suggesting that further studies of DLST in relation to AD are not warranted.     

The Direction of Linkage Disequilibrium

The previous paper (Langley, Tobari and Kojima 1974) reports that the directional linkage disequilibria, D_ω = P_ABP_ab-P_AbP_aB, tend to be negative for data between allozymes and linked to inversions. A and B stand for the two alleles with the greatest frequency in the population. In this paper we show that linkage disequilibrium in this direction is produced at equilibrium when double homozygotes have fitnesses that are a constant fraction of the product of the two component single homozygote fitnesses, a pattern that is frequently observed in experimental data.     

中国汉族人群MASP2基因单核苷酸多态性的连锁不平衡和单体型分析

目的：探讨中国汉族人群甘露糖结合凝集素相关的丝氨酸蛋白酶（MASP2）基因单核苷酸多态性（SNP）的连锁不平衡和单体型,为相关研究提供更为详实的数据。方法：选取30例广州汉族无关个体,用重新测序的方法进行MASP2基因SNP的发掘,构建连锁不平衡（LD）模式,与HapMap公布的其他4个人群数据相比,并选择4个标签SNP（tagSNP）在232例北京汉族个体和291例广州汉族个体中分析MASP2的多态性和单体型。结果和结论：对MASP2的重测序共检测出16个SNP,LD分析显示来自中国不同地区人群的LD模式基本相同,与来自美国和日本的人群存在差异;北京和广州地区汉族人群tagSNP的等位基因和基因型频率分布不存在显著差异。     

Ultrastructure and Gene Mapping of the Albino Mutant al12 in Rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Seedling albino mutation resistant to low temperature is an adaptability of rice (Oryza sativa L.) to cold. The mutant, a conditional expression controlled by development and temperature, differs from other albino mutants. The chlorophyll content of the mutant was measured using a portable chlorophyll meter, and the ultrastructure of the chloroplast was observed using a transmission electron microscope. Chlorophyll content was 1.2 SPAD, and the chloroplast did not develop, with only small vesicle-like structures. A segregation analysis of the reciprocal crosses between the albino mutation line with the rice line 9311 demonstrated that the albino trait was controlled by a single recessive gene, which was flanked by SSR markers RM5068 and RM3702 on the short arm of chromosome 8 with a distance of 0.5-1.1 cM and 4.9 cM, respectively. This gene was mapped within a 6 cM interval region and was tentatively referred to as al12.     

A Hidden Markov Model Combining Linkage and Linkage Disequilibrium Information for Haplotype Reconstruction and Quantitative Trait Locus Fine Mapping

Faithful reconstruction of haplotypes from diploid marker data (phasing) is important for many kinds of genetic analyses, including mapping of trait loci, prediction of genomic breeding values, and identification of signatures of selection. In human genetics, phasing most often exploits population information (linkage disequilibrium), while in animal genetics the primary source of information is familial (Mendelian segregation and linkage). We herein develop and evaluate a method that simultaneously exploits both sources of information. It builds on hidden Markov models that were initially developed to exploit population information only. We demonstrate that the approach improves the accuracy of allele phasing as well as imputation of missing genotypes. Reconstructed haplotypes are assigned to hidden states that are shown to correspond to clusters of genealogically related chromosomes. We show that these cluster states can directly be used to fine map QTL. The method is computationally effective at handling large data sets based on high-density SNP panels.ARRAY technology now allows genotyping of large cohorts for thousands to millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are becoming available for a growing list of organisms including human and domestic animals. Among other applications, these advances permit systematic scanning of the genome to map trait loci by association (e.g., Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2007; Charlier et al. 2008), to predict genomic breeding values for complex traits (Meuwissen et al. 2001; Goddard and Hayes 2009), or to identify signatures of selection (e.g., Voight et al. 2006).Present-day genotyping platforms do not directly provide information about linkage phase; i.e., co-inherited alleles at adjacent heterozygous markers (haplotypes) are not identified as such. As haplotype information may considerably empower genetic analyses, indirect phasing strategies have been devised: haplotypes can be reconstructed from unphased genotypes using either familial information (Mendelian segregation and linkage) and/or population information (linkage disequilibrium, LD, and surrogate parents) (e.g., Windig and Meuwissen 2004; Scheet and Stephens 2006; Kong et al. 2008).Haplotype-based approaches are routinely applied in animal genetics for combined linkage and LD mapping of QTL (e.g., Meuwissen and Goddard 2000; Blott et al. 2003). In these studies, phasing has so far relied on familial information provided by the extended pedigrees typical of livestock (e.g., Windig and Meuwissen 2004). This approach, however, leaves a nonnegligible proportion of genotypes unphased, especially for the less connected individuals. After phasing, identity-by-descent (IBD) probabilities conditional on haplotype data—needed for QTL mapping—are computed for all chromosome pairs, using familial as well as population information (hence combined linkage and LD mapping – L + LD) (e.g., Meuwissen and Goddard 2001). However, the use of high-density SNP chips and the analysis of ever larger cohorts render the computation of pairwise IBD probabilities a bottleneck.We herein propose a more efficient, heuristic approach based on hidden Markov models (HMM). It simultaneously phases and sorts haplotypes in clusters that can be used directly for mapping or other purposes. The proposed method exploits familial as well as population information, and imputes missing genotypes. We herein describe the accuracy of the proposed method and its use for L + LD mapping of QTL.     

Chromosomal Mapping ofTmp(Emp1),Xmp(Emp2), andYmp(Emp3), Genes Encoding Membrane Proteins Related toPmp22

We have recently characterized a novel mammalian gene family, encoding membrane glycoproteins with four trans-membrane domains. This gene family includes the previously studiedPMP22,which is involved in the Charcot–Marie–Tooth neuropathy, and three novel genes:TMP, XMP,andYMP(HGMW-approved symbolsEMP1, EMP2andEMP3,respectively). TheTmp(tumor-associated membrane protein) gene was isolated from a c-mycinduced mouse brain tumor and is expressed in several highly proliferative cell types. We have now isolated cDNAs of the mouseXmpandYmpgenes and determined the chromosomal localization of mouseTmp, Xmp,andYmp. Tmpwas mapped to mouse chromosome 6,Xmpwas mapped to chromosome 16, andYmpwas mapped to chromosome 7.TmpandYmpmap to paralogous chromosomal regions, whereasXmpmaps to a chromosomal region that is putatively paralogous to a region on chromosome 11, to whichPmp22was previously mapped. These data suggest that this family of membrane glycoproteins evolved as a result of chromosomal duplications.     

The Sampling Distribution of Linkage Disequilibrium

The probabilities of obtaining particular samples of gametes with two completely linked loci are derived. It is assumed that the population consists of N diploid, randomly mating individuals, that each of the two loci mutate according to the infinite allele model at a rate µ and that the population is at equilibrium. When 4Nµ is small, the most probable samples of gametes are those that segregate only two alleles at either locus. The probabilities of various samples of gametes are discussed. The results show that most samples with completely linked loci have either a very small or a very large association between the alleles of each locus. This causes the distribution of linkage disequilibrium to be skewed and the distribution of the correlation coefficient to be bimodal. The correlation coefficient is commonly used as a test statistic with a chi square distribution and yet has a bimodal distribution when the loci are completely linked. Thus, such a test is not likely to be accurate unless the rate of recombination between the loci and/or the effective population size are sufficiently large enough so that the loci can be treated as unlinked.     

Comparative Genomic Sequence Analysis of the FXR Gene Family: FMR1, FXR1, and FXR2

Mutations in the X-linked gene FMR1 cause fragile X syndrome, the leading cause of inherited mental retardation. Two autosomal paralogs of FMR1 have been identified, and are known as FXR1 and FXR2. Here we describe and compare the genomic structures of the mouse and human genes FMR1, FXR1, and FXR2. All three genes are very well conserved from mouse to human, with identical exon sizes for all but two FXR2 exons. In addition, the three genes share a conserved gene structure, suggesting they are derived from a common ancestral gene. As a first step towards exploring this hypothesis, we reexamined the Drosophila melanogaster gene Fmr1, and found it to have several of the same intron/exon junctions as the mammalian FXRs. Finally, we noted several regions of mouse/human homology in the noncoding portions of FMR1 and FXR1. Knowledge of the genomic structure and sequence of the FXR family of genes will facilitate further studies into the function of these proteins.     

铁皮石斛DoSMT2基因的克隆与表达分析

为了解SMT2基因在铁皮石斛（Dendrobium officinale）甾醇代谢过程中的作用,利用RACE技术克隆到1个DoSMT2基因,开放阅读框为1 089 bp,编码362个氨基酸,DoSMT2相对分子量为40.345 kD,理论等电点为8.13,属于稳定的亲水性蛋白。经BLAST P检索,DoSMT2蛋白属于AdoMet-MTases超级家族,含有4个S-腺苷蛋氨酸结合位点、1个甲基转移酶保守结构域和1个甾醇甲基转移酶C末端保守结构域。系统进化分析表明,DoSMT2与深圳拟兰（Apostasia shenzhenica）的SMT2亲缘关系最近,确定其属于SMT2家族。qRT-PCR分析结果表明,DoSMT2基因在茎和叶都能表达,10月份的表达量最高,叶片的表达量显著高于茎,推断叶片的甾醇代谢比茎活跃。构建了pET-29a-DoSMT2原核表达载体,并转化大肠杆菌BL21（DE3）,IPTG诱导表达出预期大小的蛋白。这为铁皮石斛DoSMT2的甲基化机制及甾醇化合物代谢研究奠定基础。