Chemical signals of queens in kin recognition of honeybees,Apis mellifera L.

Summary The volatile signals of live queens as well as head and tergite extracts were analyzed by capillary gas chromatography. Multivariate analysis revealed a significant decrease in the variability of the volatile signals of queens the more closely related they were. Though extracts of the tergal glands showed the same phenomenon, head extracts of closely related queens had no significantly reduced variabilities compared to extracts of unrelated queens. Workers, tested in a metabolic bioassay, could not discriminate among head extracts of related and unrelated queens. Therefore the classical queen substance and the semiochemicals of the mandibular glands are unlikely to be used as kin recognition labels by the workers. Workers could, however, discriminate among the odours of tergite extracts and the volatile signals of queens, indicating that the signal of the tergal gland secretions is a possible source for kin recognition labels which the mandibular gland secretions are not. Furthermore the results show that learning is strongly involved in the kin recognition system of honeybees.     

Mechanisms of population differentiation in seabirds

Despite recent advances in population genetic theory and empirical research, the extent of genetic differentiation among natural populations of animals remains difficult to predict. We reviewed studies of geographic variation in mitochondrial DNA in seabirds to test the importance of various factors in generating population genetic and phylogeographic structure. The extent of population genetic and phylogeographic structure varies extensively among species. Species fragmented by land or ice invariably exhibit population genetic structure and most also have phylogeographic structure. However, many populations (26 of 37) display genetic structure in the absence of land, suggesting that other barriers to gene flow exist. In these populations, the extent of genetic structure is best explained by nonbreeding distribution: almost all species with two or more population-specific nonbreeding areas (or seasons) have phylogeographic structure, and all species that are resident at or near breeding colonies year-round have population genetic structure. Geographic distance between colonies and foraging range appeared to have a weak influence on the extent of population genetic structure, but little evidence was found for an effect of colony dispersion or population bottlenecks. In two species (Galapagos petrel, Pterodroma phaeopygia, and Xantus's murrelet, Synthliboramphus hypoleucus), population genetic structure, and even phylogeographic structure, exist in the absence of any recognizable physical or nonphysical barrier, suggesting that other selective or behavioural processes such as philopatry may limit gene flow. Retained ancestral variation may be masking barriers to dispersal in some species, especially at high latitudes. Allopatric speciation undoubtedly occurs in this group, but reproductive isolation also appears to have evolved through founder-induced speciation, and there is strong evidence that parapatric and sympatric speciation occur. While many questions remain unanswered, results of the present review should aid conservation efforts by enabling managers to predict the extent of population differentiation in species that have not yet been studied using molecular markers, and, thus, enable the identification of management units and evolutionary significant units for conservation.     

Problems of kin recognition

Behavioural ecologists have long assumed that animals discriminate between their kin and non-kin, but paid little attention to how animals recognize their relatives. Although the first papers on kin recognition mechanisms appeared barely 10 years ago, studies now appear frequently in journals of animal behaviour. Initial findings reveal that kin recognition abilities are surprisingly well-distributed throughout the animal kingdom. Yet an understanding of the evolutionary and ecological significance of these abilities demands further analyses of the components of kin recognition mechanisms and the social contexts in which they are expressed. Many controversies and unresolved issues remain, and experimental approaches to these problems promise to continue making kin recognition an important, rapidly moving discipline within behavioural ecology.     

Olfactory kin recognition in a songbird

The ability to recognize close relatives in order to cooperate or to avoid inbreeding is widespread across all taxa. One accepted mechanism for kin recognition in birds is associative learning of visual or acoustic cues. However, how could individuals ever learn to recognize unfamiliar kin? Here, we provide the first evidence for a novel mechanism of kin recognition in birds. Zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata) fledglings are able to distinguish between kin and non-kin based on olfactory cues alone. Since olfactory cues are likely to be genetically based, this finding establishes a neglected mechanism of kin recognition in birds, particularly in songbirds, with potentially far-reaching consequences for both kin selection and inbreeding avoidance.     

Colony size and foraging range in seabirds

The reasons for variation in group size among animal species remain poorly understood. Using ‘Ashmole's halo’ hypothesis of food depletion around colonies, we predict that foraging range imposes a ceiling on the maximum colony size of seabird species. We tested this with a phylogenetic comparative study of 43 species of seabirds (28 262 colonies), and investigated the interspecific correlation between colony size and foraging ranges. Foraging range showed weak relationships with the low percentiles of colony size of species, but the strength of the association increased for larger percentiles, peaking at the maximum colony sizes. To model constraints on the functional relationship between the focal traits, we applied a quantile regression based on maximum colony size. This showed that foraging range imposes a constraint to species’ maximum colony sizes with a slope around 2. This second‐order relationship is expected from the equation of the area of a circle. Thus, our large dataset and innovative statistical approach shows that foraging range imposes a ceiling on seabird colony sizes, providing strong support to the hypothesis that food availability is an important regulator of seabird populations.     

Long-term population studies of seabirds

Long-term studies of seabirds, some now 30-40 years old, have begun to reveal significant age-related changes in the survival and reproduction o f these long-lived animals. Evidence for density-dependent regulation of seabird numbers, however, remains sparse whereas unpredictable, disastrous breeding years may be an important influence. Critical evaluation will require better data on (1) the extent of movements of seabirds between colonies, (2) the characteristics of those individuals that contribute disproportionately to the next generation, and (3) the importance of year and/or cohort effects on population processes.     

Fluctuating populations and kin interaction in mammals

Kin selection in animals favors less aggressive interaction among related individuals. If the genetic relatedness among neighbors changes with population structure and density, behavioral interaction may also change according to the population structure. Charnov and Finerty proposed a hypothesis that kin selection in voles causes population cycles if the relatedness among neighbors decreases as density increases. Field experiments have recently tested this hypothesis. Furthermore, field studies of social interaction in voles have increased in number, so that the effects of kinship on reproductive success can be reviewed. These studies indicate that although kin interaction might be an important factor affecting social behavior and reproductive success in voles, the relationships both between kinship and degree of amicable behavior or reproductive rate, and between relatedness among neighbors and population density, are far less simple than had been supposed.     

非人灵长类的亲缘选择

亲缘选择是动物进化的重要研究领域之一,非人灵长类因具有丰富的社会网络,是亲缘选择研究领域的重要类群。动物进行亲缘选择的前提是亲缘识别,并常通过社会行为的亲缘偏向表现。因此,本文从非人灵长类的亲缘识别机制和亲缘关系对其社会行为的影响两方面进行了综述:熟悉性和表现型匹配是目前普遍认同的非人灵长类亲缘识别机制,同时这两种机制并不相互排斥,它们可能共同在灵长类的亲缘识别中起作用;在非人灵长类中,亲缘关系是影响社会行为模式的主导因子,它影响着多种灵长类个体的友好行为、攻击行为和性行为的选择,同时亲缘偏向行为在不同物种中表现不尽相同,说明亲缘选择理论可以部分解释灵长类的行为,但存在一定的局限性。本文分析了两种亲缘识别机制的异同以及在实际研究中利用亲缘选择理论解释非人灵长
类社会行为的局限及可能原因。目前,对非人灵长类社会中的亲缘选择研究正逐步深入,其中分子遗传学技术的应用是重要的推动力量。同时,依然存在诸如汉密尔顿规则参数估计和新大陆猴的亲缘选择研究案例的难点,有待研究者进一步探究。     

Comparative tests of ectoparasite species richness in seabirds

Background  

The diversity of parasites attacking a host varies substantially among different host species. Understanding the factors that explain these patterns of parasite diversity is critical to identifying the ecological principles underlying biodiversity. Seabirds (Charadriiformes, Pelecaniformes and Procellariiformes) and their ectoparasitic lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) are ideal model groups in which to study correlates of parasite species richness. We evaluated the relative importance of morphological (body size, body weight, wingspan, bill length), life-history (longevity, clutch size), ecological (population size, geographical range) and behavioural (diving versus non-diving) variables as predictors of louse diversity on 413 seabird hosts species. Diversity was measured at the level of louse suborder, genus, and species, and uneven sampling of hosts was controlled for using literature citations as a proxy for sampling effort.     

Paternal kin discrimination in wild baboons.

Mammals commonly avoid mating with maternal kin, probably as a result of selection for inbreeding avoidance. Mating with paternal kin should be selected against for the same reason. However, identifying paternal kin may be more difficult than identifying maternal kin in species where the mother mates with more than one male. Selection should nonetheless favour a mechanism of paternal kin recognition that allows the same level of discrimination among paternal as among maternal kin, but the hypothesis that paternal kin avoid each other as mates is largely untested in large mammals such as primates. Here I report that among wild baboons, Papio cynocephalus, paternal siblings exhibited lower levels of affiliative and sexual behaviour during sexual consortships than non-kin, although paternal siblings were not significantly less likely to consort than non-kin. I also examined age proximity as a possible social cue of paternal relatedness, because age cohorts are likely to be paternal sibships. Pairs born within two years of each other were less likely to engage in sexual consortships than pairs born at greater intervals, and were less affiliative and sexual when they did consort. Age proximity may thus be an important social cue for paternal relatedness, and phenotype matching based on shared paternal traits may play a role as well.     

植物亲缘识别的研究进展

植物的亲缘识别(kin recognition)指植物通过识别周边个体与自己的亲缘关系, 调整自身的生长生态策略、促进亲缘个体的生存与繁衍。研究表明, 植物主要通过特定的叶片挥发物、根系分泌物、感光载体等途径, 识别周边个体与自己的亲缘关系, 改变自身形态学策略(如根系大小、根冠比、种子数量等)或者生理代谢策略(次生代谢物质、防御蛋白等), 调整与周边个体的竞争强度, 缓和与近亲缘个体之间的竞争, 加强与远亲缘或非亲缘个体的竞争。同时亲缘识别的强度也受环境因子(养分等)的影响。结合目前的研究进展, 该文分析了导致亲缘识别的研究结果存在差异或争议的主要原因, 认为主要与实验材料的选择、亲缘关系的界定标准、环境条件及测定的指标不统一有关。将来的研究应重点从生理生化、分子、代谢水平上深入研究植物亲缘识别的机理。     

Olfaction and human kin recognition

Humans, like other mammals, are capable of discriminating between kin and non‐kin by olfactory cues alone. Shortly after birth, breastfed infants become familiar with, and respond preferentially to, their mother' unique odor signature. Mothers likewise recognize the characteristic scent of their newborn infant. Close biological relatives share somewhat similar odor signatures (presumably resulting from genetically mediated similarities in bodily biochemistry and metabolism) that could facilitate kin recognition. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Developmental aspects of kin recognition

The ability to recognise kin requires the individual to possess a variety of abilities. Individuals must produce a cue which indicates relatedness, they must process this cue to determine relatedness and then must act on this cue. Research has concentrated on the first and final stage of this process, i.e., the cues of kinship and kin correlated behaviour. Little attention has been paid to how individuals process cues to determine relatedness. This paper discusses how individuals ‘recognise’ kin, the exhibition of kin correlated behaviour and considers the role of the MHC in these processes. Two broad theories have emerged to explain how individuals recognise their kin: either a recognition gene(s) or some experiential mechanism. In mammals there is no evidence to suggest that recognition (the processing of the cue) is under genetic control but rather is the result of experience, learning about related individuals during development. Moreover studies on kin recognition in the domestic dog suggest that all kin are not recognised by the same process but different classes of kin, parents, siblings may well be recognised using different means. Studies of kin correlated behaviour suggest that the behaviour exhibited towards kin by Mongolian gerbils is mediated by the environment. Factors of environmental familiarity, sex and developmental age all affect the response of individuals to kin and non‐kin. In these situations the ability to recognise kin does not change but the exhibition of kin correlated behaviour changes according to environmental conditions. These studies indicate that kin recognition may not be the ‘unified’ process previously thought and thus any explanations of the proximate and ultimate causation of kin recognition need to encompass this complexity. The question remains of whether the MHC is complex enough to do so. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.