Short Mitochondrial ARF Triggers Parkin/PINK1-dependent Mitophagy

Parkinson disease (PD) is a complex neurodegenerative disease characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Multiple genes have been associated with PD, including Parkin and PINK1. Recent studies have established that the Parkin and PINK1 proteins function in a common mitochondrial quality control pathway, whereby disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential leads to PINK1 stabilization at the mitochondrial outer surface. PINK1 accumulation leads to Parkin recruitment from the cytosol, which in turn promotes the degradation of the damaged mitochondria by autophagy (mitophagy). Most studies characterizing PINK1/Parkin mitophagy have relied on high concentrations of chemical uncouplers to trigger mitochondrial depolarization, a stimulus that has been difficult to adapt to neuronal systems and one unlikely to faithfully model the mitochondrial damage that occurs in PD. Here, we report that the short mitochondrial isoform of ARF (smARF), previously identified as an alternate translation product of the tumor suppressor p19ARF, depolarizes mitochondria and promotes mitophagy in a Parkin/PINK1-dependent manner, both in cell lines and in neurons. The work positions smARF upstream of PINK1 and Parkin and demonstrates that mitophagy can be triggered by intrinsic signaling cascades.     

Parkin mediates proteasome-dependent protein degradation and rupture of the outer mitochondrial membrane

Upon mitochondrial depolarization, Parkin, a Parkinson disease-related E3 ubiquitin ligase, translocates from the cytosol to mitochondria and promotes their degradation by mitophagy, a selective type of autophagy. Here, we report that in addition to mitophagy, Parkin mediates proteasome-dependent degradation of outer membrane proteins such as Tom20, Tom40, Tom70, and Omp25 of depolarized mitochondria. By contrast, degradation of the inner membrane and matrix proteins largely depends on mitophagy. Furthermore, Parkin induces rupture of the outer membrane of depolarized mitochondria, which also depends on proteasomal activity. Upon induction of mitochondrial depolarization, proteasomes are recruited to mitochondria in the perinuclear region. Neither proteasome-dependent degradation of outer membrane proteins nor outer membrane rupture is required for mitophagy. These results suggest that Parkin regulates degradation of outer and inner mitochondrial membrane proteins differently through proteasome- and mitophagy-dependent pathways.     

Molecular Basis for the Resistance of Human Mitochondrial 2-Cys Peroxiredoxin 3 to Hyperoxidation

Peroxiredoxins (Prxs) detoxify peroxides and modulate H₂O₂-mediated cell signaling in normal and numerous pathophysiological contexts. The typical 2-Cys subclass of Prxs (human Prx1–4) utilizes a Cys sulfenic acid (Cys-SOH) intermediate and disulfide bond formation across two subunits during catalysis. During oxidative stress, however, the Cys-SOH moiety can react with H₂O₂ to form Cys sulfinic acid (Cys-SO₂H), resulting in inactivation. The propensity to hyperoxidize varies greatly among human Prxs. Mitochondrial Prx3 is the most resistant to inactivation, but the molecular basis for this property is unknown. A panel of chimeras and Cys variants of Prx2 and Prx3 were treated with H₂O₂ and analyzed by rapid chemical quench and time-resolved electrospray ionization-TOF mass spectrometry. The latter utilized an on-line rapid-mixing setup to collect data on the low seconds time scale. These approaches enabled the first direct observation of the Cys-SOH intermediate and a putative Cys sulfenamide (Cys-SN) for Prx2 and Prx3 during catalysis. The substitution of C-terminal residues in Prx3, residues adjacent to the resolving Cys residue, resulted in a Prx2-like protein with increased sensitivity to hyperoxidation and decreased ability to form the intermolecular disulfide bond between subunits. The corresponding Prx2 chimera became more resistant to hyperoxidation. Taken together, the results of this study support that the kinetics of the Cys-SOH intermediate is key to determine the probability of hyperoxidation or disulfide formation. Given the oxidizing environment of the mitochondrion, it makes sense that Prx3 would favor disulfide bond formation as a protection mechanism against hyperoxidation and inactivation.     

Mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs) as novel pharmacological targets for anti-cancer agents

Recently, it was demonstrated that some anti-cancer agents used mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channels (VDAC1–3 isoforms) as their pharmacological target. VDACs are expressed more highly in cancer cells than normal cells; thus the VDAC-dependent cytotoxic agents can have cancer-selectivity. Furanonaphthoquinones (FNQs) induced caspase-dependent apoptosis via the production of NADH-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) by VDAC1. The ROS production and the anti-cancer activity of FNQs were increased by VDAC1 overexpression. Meanwhile, erastin induced RAS-RAF-MEK-dependent non-apoptotic cell death via VDAC2. On the other hand, VDACs were needed for transporting ATP to hexokinase (HK), which was highly expressed in cancer cells. We hypothesized that the high glycolysis might induce up-regulation of VDAC. In this review, we propose that VDACs are novel candidates for effective pharmacological targets of anti-cancer drugs.     

Atg9 Vesicles Recruit Vesicle-tethering Proteins Trs85 and Ypt1 to the Autophagosome Formation Site

Atg9 is a transmembrane protein that is essential for autophagy. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it has recently been revealed that Atg9 exists on cytoplasmic small vesicles termed Atg9 vesicles. To identify the components of Atg9 vesicles, we purified the Atg9 vesicles and subjected them to mass spectrometry. We found that their protein composition was distinct from other organellar membranes and that Atg9 and Atg27 in particular are major components of Atg9 vesicles. In addition to these two components, Trs85, a specific subunit of the transport protein particle III (TRAPPIII) complex, and the Rab GTPase Ypt1 were also identified. Trs85 directly interacts with Atg9, and the Trs85-containing TRAPPIII complex facilitates the association of Ypt1 onto Atg9 vesicles. We also showed that Trs85 and Ypt1 are localized to the preautophagosomal structure in an Atg9-dependent manner. Our data suggest that Atg9 vesicles recruit the TRAPPIII complex and Ypt1 to the preautophagosomal structure. The vesicle-tethering machinery consequently acts in the process of autophagosome formation.     

Nix Is Critical to Two Distinct Phases of Mitophagy,Reactive Oxygen Species-mediated Autophagy Induction and Parkin-Ubiquitin-p62-mediated Mitochondrial Priming

Damaged mitochondria can be eliminated by autophagy, i.e. mitophagy, which is important for cellular homeostasis and cell survival. Despite the fact that a number of factors have been found to be important for mitophagy in mammalian cells, their individual roles in the process had not been clearly defined. Parkin is a ubiquitin-protein isopeptide ligase able to translocate to the mitochondria that are to be removed. We showed here in a chemical hypoxia model of mitophagy induced by an uncoupler, carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) that Parkin translocation resulted in mitochondrial ubiquitination and p62 recruitment to the mitochondria. Small inhibitory RNA-mediated knockdown of p62 significantly diminished mitochondrial recognition by the autophagy machinery and the subsequent elimination. Thus Parkin, ubiquitin, and p62 function in preparing mitochondria for mitophagy, here referred to as mitochondrial priming. However, these molecules were not required for the induction of autophagy machinery. Neither Parkin nor p62 seemed to affect autophagy induction by CCCP. Instead, we found that Nix was required for the autophagy induction. Nix promoted CCCP-induced mitochondrial depolarization and reactive oxygen species generation, which inhibited mTOR signaling and activated autophagy. Nix also contributed to mitochondrial priming by controlling the mitochondrial translocation of Parkin, although reactive oxygen species generation was not involved in this step. Deletion of the C-terminal membrane targeting sequence but not mutations in the BH3 domain disabled Nix for these functions. Our work thus distinguished the molecular events responsible for the different phases of mitophagy and placed Nix upstream of the events.     

Reciprocal Changes in Phosphorylation and Methylation of Mammalian Brain Sodium Channels in Response to Seizures

Voltage-gated sodium (Nav) channels initiate action potentials in brain neurons and are primary therapeutic targets for anti-epileptic drugs controlling neuronal hyperexcitability in epilepsy. The molecular mechanisms underlying abnormal Nav channel expression, localization, and function during development of epilepsy are poorly understood but can potentially result from altered posttranslational modifications (PTMs). For example, phosphorylation regulates Nav channel gating, and has been proposed to contribute to acquired insensitivity to anti-epileptic drugs exhibited by Nav channels in epileptic neurons. However, whether changes in specific brain Nav channel PTMs occur acutely in response to seizures has not been established. Here, we show changes in PTMs of the major brain Nav channel, Nav1.2, after acute kainate-induced seizures. Mass spectrometry-based proteomic analyses of Nav1.2 purified from the brains of control and seizure animals revealed a significant down-regulation of phosphorylation at nine sites, primarily located in the interdomain I-II linker, the region of Nav1.2 crucial for phosphorylation-dependent regulation of activity. Interestingly, Nav1.2 in the seizure samples contained methylated arginine (MeArg) at three sites. These MeArgs were adjacent to down-regulated sites of phosphorylation, and Nav1.2 methylation increased after seizure. Phosphorylation and MeArg were not found together on the same tryptic peptide, suggesting reciprocal regulation of these two PTMs. Coexpression of Nav1.2 with the primary brain arginine methyltransferase PRMT8 led to a surprising 3-fold increase in Nav1.2 current. Reciprocal regulation of phosphorylation and MeArg of Nav1.2 may underlie changes in neuronal Nav channel function in response to seizures and also contribute to physiological modulation of neuronal excitability.     

Nitric Oxide Induction of Parkin Translocation in PTEN-induced Putative Kinase 1 (PINK1) Deficiency: FUNCTIONAL ROLE OF NEURONAL NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE DURING MITOPHAGY*

The failure to trigger mitophagy is implicated in the pathogenesis of familial Parkinson disease that is caused by PINK1 or Parkin mutations. According to the prevailing PINK1-Parkin signaling model, mitophagy is promoted by the mitochondrial translocation of Parkin, an essential PINK1-dependent step that occurs via a previously unknown mechanism. Here we determined that critical concentrations of NO was sufficient to induce the mitochondrial translocation of Parkin even in PINK1 deficiency, with apparent increased interaction of full-length PINK1 accumulated during mitophagy, with neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). Specifically, optimum levels of NO enabled PINK1-null dopaminergic neuronal cells to regain the mitochondrial translocation of Parkin, which appeared to be significantly suppressed by nNOS-null mutation. Moreover, nNOS-null mutation resulted in the same mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) enzyme deficits as PINK1-null mutation. The involvement of mitochondrial nNOS activation in mitophagy was further confirmed by the greatly increased interactions of full-length PINK1 with nNOS, accompanied by mitochondrial accumulation of phospho-nNOS (Ser¹⁴¹²) during mitophagy. Of great interest is that the L347P PINK1 mutant failed to bind to nNOS. The loss of nNOS phosphorylation and Parkin accumulation on PINK1-deficient mitochondria could be reversed in a PINK1-dependent manner. Finally, non-toxic levels of NO treatment aided in the recovery of PINK1-null dopaminergic neuronal cells from mitochondrial ETC enzyme deficits. In summary, we demonstrated the full-length PINK1-dependent recruitment of nNOS, its activation in the induction of Parkin translocation, and the feasibility of NO-based pharmacotherapy for defective mitophagy and ETC enzyme deficits in Parkinson disease.     

An Interaction between Bcl-xL and the Voltage-dependent Anion Channel (VDAC) Promotes Mitochondrial Ca2+ Uptake

The role of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-x_L in regulating mitochondrial Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_mito) handling was examined in wild-type (WT) and Bcl-x_L knock-out (Bcl-x_L-KO) mouse embryonic fibroblast cells. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-generating agonist evoked cytosolic Ca²⁺ transients that produced a larger [Ca²⁺]_mito uptake in WT cells compared with Bcl-x_L-KO. In permeabilized cells, stepping external [Ca²⁺] from 0 to 3 μm also produced a larger [Ca²⁺]_mito uptake in WT; moreover, the [Ca²⁺]_mito uptake capacity of Bcl-x_L-KO cells was restored by re-expression of mitochondrially targeted Bcl-x_L. Bcl-x_L enhancement of [Ca²⁺]_mito uptake persisted after dissipation of the mitochondrial membrane potential but was absent in mitoplasts lacking an outer mitochondrial membrane. The outer membrane-localized voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) is a known Ca²⁺ permeability pathway that directly interacts with Bcl-x_L. Bcl-x_L interacted with VDAC1 and -3 isoforms, and peptides based on the VDAC sequence disrupted Bcl-x_L binding. Peptides reduced [Ca²⁺]_mito uptake in WT but were without effect in Bcl-x_L-KO cells. In addition, peptides reduced [Ca²⁺]_mito uptake in VDAC1 and VDAC3 knock-out but not VDAC1 and -3 double knock-out mouse embryonic fibroblast cells, confirming that Bcl-x_L interacts functionally with VDAC1 and -3 but not VDAC2. Thus, an interaction between Bcl-x_L and VDAC promotes matrix Ca²⁺ accumulation by increasing Ca²⁺ transfer across the outer mitochondrial membrane.     

Comparative Gene Identification-58 (CGI-58) Promotes Autophagy as a Putative Lysophosphatidylglycerol Acyltransferase

CGI-58 is a lipid droplet-associated protein that, when mutated, causes Chanarin-Dorfman syndrome in humans, which is characterized by excessive storage of triglyceride in various tissues. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the defect remain elusive. CGI-58 was previously reported to catalyze the resynthesis of phosphatidic acid as a lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase. In addition to triglyceride, phosphatidic acid is also used a substrate for the synthesis of various mitochondrial phospholipids. In this report, we investigated the propensity of CGI-58 in the remodeling of various phospholipids. We found that the recombinant CGI-58 overexpressed in mammalian cells or purified from Sf9 insect cells catalyzed efficiently the reacylation of lysophosphatidylglycerol to phosphatidylglycerol (PG), which requires acyl-CoA as the acyl donor. In contrast, the recombinant CGI-58 was devoid of acyltransferase activity toward other lysophospholipids. Accordingly, overexpression and knockdown of CGI-58 adversely affected the endogenous PG level in C2C12 cells. PG is a substrate for the synthesis of cardiolipin, which is required for mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and mitophagy. Consequently, overexpression and knockdown of CGI-58 adversely affected autophagy and mitophagy in C2C12 cells. In support for a key role of CGI-58 in mitophagy, overexpression of CGI-58 significantly stimulated mitochondrial fission and translocation of PINK1 to mitochondria, key steps involved in mitophagy. Furthermore, overexpression of CGI-58 promoted mitophagic initiation through activation of 5′-AMP-activated protein kinase and inhibition of mTORC1 mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 signaling, the positive and negative regulators of autophagy, respectively. Together, these findings identified novel molecular mechanisms by which CGI-58 regulates lipid homeostasis, because defective autophagy is implicated in dyslipidemia and fatty liver diseases.     

Tubulin Tail Sequences and Post-translational Modifications Regulate Closure of Mitochondrial Voltage-dependent Anion Channel (VDAC)

It was previously shown that tubulin dimer interaction with the mitochondrial outer membrane protein voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) blocks traffic through the channel and reduces oxidative metabolism and that this requires the unstructured anionic C-terminal tail peptides found on both α- and β-tubulin subunits. It was unclear whether the α- and β-tubulin tails contribute equally to VDAC blockade and what effects might be due to sequence variations in these tail peptides or to tubulin post-translational modifications, which mostly occur on the tails. The nature of the contribution of the tubulin body beyond acting as an anchor for the tails had not been clarified either. Here we present peptide-protein chimeras to address these questions. These constructs allow us to easily combine a tail peptide with different proteins or combine different tail peptides with a particular protein. The results show that a single tail grafted to an inert protein is sufficient to produce channel closure similar to that observed with tubulin. We show that the β-tail is more than an order of magnitude more potent than the α-tail and that the lower α-tail activity is largely due to the presence of a terminal tyrosine. Detyrosination activates the α-tail, and activation is reversed by the removal of the glutamic acid penultimate to the tyrosine. Nitration of tyrosine reverses the tyrosine inhibition of binding and even induces prolonged VDAC closures. Our results demonstrate that small changes in sequence or post-translational modification of the unstructured tails of tubulin result in substantial changes in VDAC closure.     

The BH4 Domain of Anti-apoptotic Bcl-XL,but Not That of the Related Bcl-2, Limits the Voltage-dependent Anion Channel 1 (VDAC1)-mediated Transfer of Pro-apoptotic Ca2+ Signals to Mitochondria

Excessive Ca²⁺ fluxes from the endoplasmic reticulum to the mitochondria result in apoptotic cell death. Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL proteins exert part of their anti-apoptotic function by directly targeting Ca²⁺-transport systems, like the endoplasmic reticulum-localized inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP₃Rs) and the voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) at the outer mitochondrial membranes. We previously demonstrated that the Bcl-2 homology 4 (BH4) domain of Bcl-2 protects against Ca²⁺-dependent apoptosis by binding and inhibiting IP₃Rs, although the BH4 domain of Bcl-XL was protective independently of binding IP₃Rs. Here, we report that in contrast to the BH4 domain of Bcl-2, the BH4 domain of Bcl-XL binds and inhibits VDAC1. In intact cells, delivery of the BH4-Bcl-XL peptide via electroporation limits agonist-induced mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake and protects against staurosporine-induced apoptosis, in line with the results obtained with VDAC1^−/− cells. Moreover, the delivery of the N-terminal domain of VDAC1 as a synthetic peptide (VDAC1-NP) abolishes the ability of BH4-Bcl-XL to suppress mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake and to protect against apoptosis. Importantly, VDAC1-NP did not affect the ability of BH4-Bcl-2 to suppress agonist-induced Ca²⁺ release in the cytosol or to prevent apoptosis, as done instead by an IP₃R-derived peptide. In conclusion, our data indicate that the BH4 domain of Bcl-XL, but not that of Bcl-2, selectively targets VDAC1 and inhibits apoptosis by decreasing VDAC1-mediated Ca²⁺ uptake into the mitochondria.     

Altering O-Linked β-N-Acetylglucosamine Cycling Disrupts Mitochondrial Function

Mitochondrial impairment is commonly found in many diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and Alzheimer disease. We demonstrate that the enzymes responsible for the addition or removal of the O-GlcNAc modification, O-GlcNAc transferase (OGT) and O-GlcNAcase (OGA), respectively, are critical regulators of mitochondrial function. Using a SILAC (stable isotope labeling of amino acids in cell culture)-based proteomics screen, we quantified the changes in mitochondrial protein expression in OGT- and OGA-overexpressing cells. Strikingly, overexpression of OGT or OGA showed significant decreases in mitochondria-localized proteins involved in the respiratory chain and the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Furthermore, mitochondrial morphology was altered in these cells. Both cellular respiration and glycolysis were reduced in OGT/OGA-overexpressing cells. These data demonstrate that alterations in O-GlcNAc cycling profoundly affect energy and metabolite production.     

Accumulation of newly synthesized F1 in vivo in arabidopsis mitochondria provides evidence for modular assembly of the plant F1Fo ATP synthase

F(1) subcomplex in mitochondrial samples is often considered to be a breakage product of the F(1)F(O) ATP synthase during sample handling and electrophoresis. We have used a progressive (15)N incorporation strategy to investigate the plant F(1)F(O) ATP synthase assembly model and the apparently free F(1) in plant mitochondria which is found in both the inner membrane and matrix. We show that subunits within F(1) in the inner membrane and matrix had a relatively higher (15)N incorporation rate than corresponding subunits in intact membrane F(1)F(O). This demonstrates that free F(1) was a newer pool with a faster turnover rate consistent with it being an assembly intermediate in vivo. Import of [(35)S]Met-labeled F(1) subunit precursors into Arabidopsis mitochondria showed the rapid accumulation of F(1) assembly intermediates. The different (15)N incorporation rate in matrix F(1), inner membrane F(1) and intact F(1)F(O) demonstrates these three represent different protein populations and are likely step by step intermediates during the assembly process of plant mitochondrial ATP synthase. The potential biological implications of in vivo accumulation of enzymatically active F(1) in mitochondria are discussed.     

Caspase 1 Activation Is Protective against Hepatocyte Cell Death by Up-regulating Beclin 1 Protein and Mitochondrial Autophagy in the Setting of Redox Stress

Caspase 1 activation can be induced by oxidative stress, which leads to the release of the proinflammatory cytokines IL1β and IL18 in myeloid cells and a potentially damaging inflammatory response. However, little is known about the role of caspase 1 in non-immune cells, such as hepatocytes, that express and activate the inflammasome but do not produce a significant amount of IL1β/IL18. Here we demonstrate that caspase 1 activation protects against cell death after redox stress induced by hypoxia/reoxygenation in hepatocytes. Mechanistically, we show that caspase 1 reduces mitochondrial respiration and reactive oxygen species by increasing mitochondrial autophagy and subsequent clearance of mitochondria in hepatocytes after hypoxia/reoxygenation. Caspase 1 increases autophagic flux through up-regulating autophagy initiator beclin 1 during redox stress and is an important cell survival factor in hepatocytes. We find that during hemorrhagic shock with resuscitation, an in vivo mouse model associated with severe hepatic redox stress, caspase 1 activation is also protective against liver injury and excessive oxidative stress through the up-regulation of beclin 1. Our findings suggest an alternative role for caspase 1 activation in promoting adaptive responses to oxidative stress and, more specifically, in limiting reactive oxygen species production and damage in cells and tissues where IL1β/IL18 are not highly expressed.     

The E3 Ubiquitin Ligase Parkin Is Recruited to the 26 S Proteasome via the Proteasomal Ubiquitin Receptor Rpn13

Mutations in the Park2 gene, encoding the RING-HECT hybrid E3 ubiquitin ligase parkin, are responsible for a common familial form of Parkinson disease. By mono- and polyubiquitinating target proteins, parkin regulates various cellular processes, including degradation of proteins within the 26 S proteasome, a large multimeric degradation machine. In our attempt to further elucidate the function of parkin, we have identified the proteasomal ubiquitin receptor Rpn13/ADRM1 as a parkin-interacting protein. We show that the N-terminal ubiquitin-like (Ubl) domain of parkin binds directly to the pleckstrin-like receptor for ubiquitin (Pru) domain within Rpn13. Using mutational analysis and NMR, we find that Pru binding involves the hydrophobic patch surrounding Ile-44 in the parkin Ubl, a region that is highly conserved between ubiquitin and Ubl domains. However, compared with ubiquitin, the parkin Ubl exhibits greater than 10-fold higher affinity for the Pru domain. Moreover, knockdown of Rpn13 in cells increases parkin levels and abrogates parkin recruitment to the 26 S proteasome, establishing Rpn13 as the major proteasomal receptor for parkin. In contrast, silencing Rpn13 did not impair parkin recruitment to mitochondria or parkin-mediated mitophagy upon carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone-induced mitochondrial depolarization. However, it did delay the clearance of mitochondrial proteins (TIM23, TIM44, and TOM20) and enhance parkin autoubiquitination. Taken together, these findings implicate Rpn13 in linking parkin to the 26 S proteasome and regulating the clearance of mitochondrial proteins during mitophagy.     

Thiamine Triphosphate Synthesis in Rat Brain Occurs in Mitochondria and Is Coupled to the Respiratory Chain

In animals, thiamine deficiency leads to specific brain lesions, generally attributed to decreased levels of thiamine diphosphate, an essential cofactor in brain energy metabolism. However, another far less abundant derivative, thiamine triphosphate (ThTP), may also have a neuronal function. Here, we show that in the rat brain, ThTP is essentially present and synthesized in mitochondria. In mitochondrial preparations from brain (but not liver), ThTP can be produced from thiamine diphosphate and P_i. This endergonic process is coupled to the oxidation of succinate or NADH through the respiratory chain but cannot be energized by ATP hydrolysis. ThTP synthesis is strongly inhibited by respiratory chain inhibitors, such as myxothiazol and inhibitors of the H⁺ channel of F₀F₁-ATPase. It is also impaired by disruption of the mitochondria or by depolarization of the inner membrane (by protonophores or valinomycin), indicating that a proton-motive force (Δp) is required. Collapsing Δp after ThTP synthesis causes its rapid disappearance, suggesting that both synthesis and hydrolysis are catalyzed by a reversible H⁺-translocating ThTP synthase. The synthesized ThTP can be released from mitochondria in the presence of external P_i. However, ThTP probably does not accumulate in the cytoplasm in vivo, because it is not detected in the cytosolic fraction obtained from a brain homogenate. Our results show for the first time that a high energy triphosphate compound other than ATP can be produced by a chemiosmotic type of mechanism. This might shed a new light on our understanding of the mechanisms of thiamine deficiency-induced brain lesions.     

Protein Interaction Screening for the Ankyrin Repeats and Suppressor of Cytokine Signaling (SOCS) Box (ASB) Family Identify Asb11 as a Novel Endoplasmic Reticulum Resident Ubiquitin Ligase

The ankyrin and SOCS (suppressor of cytokine signaling) box (ASB) family of proteins function as the substrate recognition subunit in a subset of Elongin-Cullin-SOCS (ECS) E3 ubiquitin ligases. Despite counting 18 members in humans, the identity of the physiological targets of the Asb proteins remains largely unexplored. To increase our understanding of the function of ASB proteins, we conducted a family-wide SILAC (stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture)-based protein/protein interaction analysis. This investigation led to the identification of novel as well as known ASB-associated proteins like Cullin 5 and Elongins B/C. We observed that several proteins can be bound by more than one Asb protein. The additional exploration of this phenomenon demonstrated that ASB-Cullin 5 complexes can oligomerize and provides evidence that Cullin 5 forms heterodimeric complexes with the Cullin 4a-DDB1 complex. We also demonstrated that ASB11 is a novel endoplasmic reticulum-associated ubiquitin ligase with the ability to interact and promote the ubiquitination of Ribophorin 1, an integral protein of the oligosaccharyltransferase (OST) glycosylation complex. Moreover, expression of ASB11 can increase Ribophorin 1 protein turnover in vivo. In summary, we provide a comprehensive protein/protein interaction data resource that can aid the biological and functional characterization of ASB ubiquitin ligases.