A modulating role of mercurials-sensitive sulfhydryl groups in synaptic GABA receptor binding

The specific binding of GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) agonist ³H-muscimol, to synaptic membranes from the rat brain showed a significant increase, when the membranous preparations were treated with a low concentration (10^?4–10^?5M) of mercurial sulfhydryl reagents such as p-chloromercuribenzoate and mercuric chloride. This activation in GABA receptor binding was bicuculline-sensitive, and was partially restored by subsequent treatments with 10 mM cysteine, penicillamine, or mercaptoethanol. Scatchard analysis of the binding revealed that this activation was due to the increase in the affinity of both high and low affinity bindings sites but not in the B_max values. On the other hand, the treatment of synaptic membranes with hydrophilic sulfhydryl reagents such as N-ethylmaleimide and iodoacetate had no effect on the binding. These hydrophilic sulfhydryl reagents, however, induced an increase of the binding following the pretreatment of synaptic membranes with 0.01% Triton X-100 or 0.5 U/mg prot. of phospholipase A₂ (EC 3.1.1.4.). These results suggest that mercurials-sensitive sulfhydryl groups, which are normally masked by membrane lipids, may play a modulating role in GABA receptor binding at central synapses.     

A possible role for dephosphorylation in glucocorticoid receptor transformation

Addition of bovine intestinal alkaline phosphatase to mouse AtT-20 cell cytosol increases the rate of glucocorticoid receptor transformation, as evidenced by a change in sedimentation rate from 9.1S to 5.2S. Acid phosphatases are completely ineffective in this regard. Alkaline phosphatase-promoted receptor transformation is both time- and dose-dependent. A variety of phosphatase inhibitors are effective in inhibiting this process, the most potent being transition metal oxyanions such as molybdate, tungstate, and arsenate. The ability of the various inhibitors to suppress alkaline phosphatase-promoted receptor transformation does not correspond well with their potencies for inhibiting para-nitrophenyl phosphate hydrolysis. However, a better correspondence between the inhibition of endogenous receptor transformation and total cytosolic phosphatase activity is observed, and both sodium fluoride and glucose-1-phosphate inhibit endogenous receptor transformation. The protease inhibitors phenyl-methylsulfonyl fluoride and antipain have no effect on receptor transformation. Surprisingly, leupeptin is effective in inhibiting alkaline phosphatase-promoted receptor transformation. Although this raises the possibility of a contaminating protease activity in the alkaline phosphatase enzyme preparation, treatment of covalently affinity-labeled receptor with the enzyme shows no proteolysis of the receptor or any other non-specifically labeled cytosolic protein. Thus, it is possible that a novel action of leupeptin, unrelated to its protease-inhibitory activity, may be involved in the suppression of receptor transformation. The studies presented here suggest that dephosphorylation of some component in cytosol is involved in the destabilization of receptor subunit interactions, resulting in glucocorticoid receptor transformation.     

Structure and specific DNA binding of the rat liver glucocorticoid receptor

During recent years major advances have been made in our understanding of glucocorticoid mechanism of action. This progress has been made possible by access to purified glucocorticoid receptor in significant amounts as well as by application of hybrid DNA technology within the field of glucocorticoid control of gene expression. Especially the mammary tumour virus genome has turned out to be a convenient experimental system suitable for such investigations. This paper summarizes some of the work carried out in our own laboratory, partially in collaboration with Dr Keith Yamamoto and his associates at the Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, U.S.A.     

Selective molybdate-directed covalent modification of sulfhydryl groups in the steroid-binding versus the DNA-binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor

Hydrogen peroxide produces all of the effects on glucocorticoid receptors that are produced by molybdate, including stabilization of the receptor 90-kDa heat shock protein (hsp90) complex (Tienrungroj, W., Meshinchi, S., Sanchez, E. R., Pratt, S. E., Grippo, J. F., Holmgren, A., and Pratt, W. B. (1987) J. Biol. Chem. 262, 6992-7000). When the glucocorticoid receptor is exposed simultaneously to molybdate and peroxide at concentrations that are optimal for receptor stabilization if each agent is present alone, there is an irreversible loss of steroid binding activity. The effect is accompanied by a covalent modification of the receptor, which is demonstrated by an increase in its apparent Mr on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Preincubation of the receptor with the sulfhydryl-modifying reagents methyl methanethiosulfonate or N-ethylmaleimide prevents covalent modification, suggesting that cysteine moieties are the site of attack. The covalently modified receptor can still bind to DNA. Molybdate-peroxide treatment does not covalently modify the 15-kDa tryptic fragment containing the DNA-binding domain and 11 of the 20 cysteine moieties in the receptor. However, the 27-kDa tryptic fragment, which contains the steroid-binding domain and 5 cysteines, is covalently modified. The 27-kDa tryptic fragment is covalently modified by the molybdate-peroxide combination when [3H]dexamethasone 21-mesylate is covalently bound to Cys-644. This leaves some combination of 4 cysteines in the steroid-binding domain (628, 649, 671, and 742) as the modified groups. These modifications occur in a region of the receptor that is known to contain its sites of interaction with both hsp90 and molybdate, with the latter having a well-established avidity for sulfur. These observations raise the possibility that the covalent modification caused by the molybdate-peroxide combination represents a modification of sulfur ligands involved in molybdate stabilization of the receptor.     

DNA binding specificity of mutant glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domains

Mutation of a small number of amino acids in the DNA-binding domain of the estrogen receptor to the corresponding sequence of the glucocorticoid receptor switches the specificity of the receptor in transactivation assays (Mader, S., Kumar, V., de Verneuil, H., and Chambon, P. (1989) Nature 338, 271-274). We have made the corresponding reciprocal mutations in the context of the glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domain and studied the binding of wild type and mutant purified proteins to palindromic glucocorticoid and estrogen response elements as well as to elements of intermediate sequence, using gel mobility shift assays. We show here that a protein with two altered amino acids binds glucocorticoid and estrogen response elements with a low but equal affinity, whereas a protein with an additional changed residue has a high affinity for estrogen response elements but still retains a considerable affinity for glucocorticoid response elements. Using binding sites of intermediate sequence we have further characterized the interaction with DNA. The in vitro DNA binding results are confirmed by in vivo transactivation assays in yeast. Finally we suggest a testable model for amino acid/base pair interactions involved in recognition by the glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domain of its target sequence.     

Role of sulfhydryl groups in Y2 neuropeptide Y receptor binding activity.

Benextramine, a tetramine disulfide, irreversibly inhibits neuropeptide Y (NPY) binding to the 50-kDa Y2 NPY receptor in bovine hippocampus (Li, W., MacDonald, R. G., and Hexum, T. D. (1991) Eur. J. Pharmacol. 207, 89-91). Evidence is presented that this inhibition occurs through a thiol-disulfide exchange. Treatment of bovine hippocampal membranes with benextramine inhibited NPY affinity cross-linking to the 50-kDa receptor. This inhibition of labeling was not affected by washing the membranes, but could be completely reversed by the addition of several thiol reducing reagents, including reduced glutathione, beta-mercaptoethanol, and cysteine. Benextramine inhibited 70% of NPY-specific labeling and was much more effective than other sulfhydryl reactive agents, such as oxidized glutathione, cystamine, and 5,5'-dithio-bis(2-nitrobenzoic acid). Furthermore, the sulfhydryl-modifying agents N-ethylmaleimide and p-chloromercuriphenyl-sulfonic acid specifically decreased NPY affinity labeling. Finally, NPY labeling of the 50-kDa receptor was reduced by the heavy metal ions Zn2+, Cu2+, and Hg2+. Preincubation with NPY prevented Y2 receptors from being inactivated by either 400 microM N-ethylmaleimide or 1 mM benextramine. These results suggest that one or more benextramine-sensitive sulfhydryl groups on the Y2 receptor are important for NPY binding activity.     

DNA binding analysis of glucocorticoid receptor specificity mutants.

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) DNA binding domain consists of several conserved amino acids and folds into two zinc finger-like structures. Previous transactivation experiments indicated that three amino acids residing in this region, Gly, Ser and Val, appear to be critical for target-site discrimination. Based on the solved crystal structure, these residues are at the beginning of an amphipathic alpha-helix that interacts with the DNA's major groove; of these, only valine, however, contacts DNA. In order to examine their functional role directly, we have substituted these residues for the corresponding amino acids from the estrogen receptor (ER), overexpressed and purified the mutant proteins, and assayed their binding specificity and affinity by gel mobility shifts using glucocorticoid or estrogen response elements (GRE or ERE, respectively) as DNA probes. We find that all three residues are indeed required to fully switch GR's specificity to an ERE. The contacting valine in GR is of primary importance. The corresponding residue in ER, alanine, is less important for specificity, while glutamic acid, four amino acids towards the N-terminus, is most critical for ER discrimination. Finally, we show that the GR DNA binding domain carrying all three ER-specific mutations has a significantly higher affinity for an ERE than the ER DNA binding domain itself. We interpret these results in the context of both the data presented here and the crystal structure of the GR DNA binding domain complexed to a GRE.     

Steroid binding to hepatoma tissue culture cell glucocorticoid receptors involves at least two sulfhydryl groups

The presence of a thiol in the steroid binding cavity of glucocorticoid receptors has recently been proved by our affinity labeling of Cys-656 in the steroid binding domain of rat receptors (Simons, S. S., Jr., Pumphrey, J. G., Rudikoff, S., and Eisen, H. J. (1987) J. Biol. Chem. 262, 9676-9680). Studies with the sterically small, thiol-specific reagent methyl methanethiolsulfonate (MMTS) now reveal the involvement of at least two sulfhydryl groups in steroid binding. While the dose-response curves for [3H]dexamethasone binding versus thiol reagent are normally sigmoidal, an unusual bimodal curve is obtained with MMTS in which dexamethasone binding is eliminated at low, but maintained at intermediate, MMTS concentrations. This bimodal dose-response curve demands the involvement of two (or more) thiol groups. Those receptors pretreated with intermediate concentrations of MMTS retain approximately 70% of the initial binding capacity and one-fifth the affinity for dexamethasone. Solutions of this low affinity form of receptor contain essentially no accessible -SH groups, and all of the usual covalent labeling by dexamethasone 21-mesylate of various proteins, including the receptor, is blocked. The facts, that this low affinity form of the receptor is not affected by added iodoacetamide, cannot be produced from the nonsteroid binding form of receptor simply by adding more MMTS, and displays different kinetics of formation than does the nonsteroid binding form of receptor all argue that reaction of the receptor with intermediate and low MMTS, concentrations occurs via different pathways. Nevertheless, the effects of both concentrations of MMTS on the receptor are fully reversible with added dithiothreitol. The kinetics of inhibition of [3H]dexamethasone binding at low MMTS concentrations are independent of receptor concentration, indicating an intramolecular reaction. Collectively these data suggest a model of steroid binding involving two thiols, one of which appears to be Cys-656. Low concentrations of MMTS induce the formation of an intramolecular disulfide, which prevents steroid binding, while the intermediate MMTS concentrations convert both thiols directly to mixed disulfides, and steroid binding persists. Thus, reduced thiols do not appear to be required for steroid binding if the steric bulk of the oxidized thiols is small.     

The role of sulfhydryl groups in the bleaching and synthesis of rhodopsin

The condensation of retinene₁ with opsin to form rhodopsin is optimal at pH about 6, a pH which favors the condensation of retinene₁ with sulfhydryl rather than with amino groups. The synthesis of rhodopsin, though unaffected by the less powerful sulfhydryl reagents, monoiodoacetic acid and its amide, is inhibited completely by p-chloromercuribenzoate (PCMB). This inhibition is reversed in part by the addition of glutathione. PCMB does not attack rhodopsin itself, nor does it react with retinene₁. Its action in this system is confined to the —SH groups of opsin. Under some conditions the synthesis of rhodopsin is aided by the presence of such a sulfhydryl compound as glutathione, which helps to keep the —SH groups of opsin free and reduced. By means of the amperometric silver titration of Kolthoff and Harris, it is shown that sulfhydryl groups are liberated in the bleaching of rhodopsin, two such groups for each retinene₁ molecule that appears. This is true equally of rhodopsin from the retinas of cattle, frogs) and squid. The exposure of new sulfhydryl groups adds an important element to the growing evidence that relates the bleaching of rhodopsin to protein denaturation. The place of sulfhydryl groups in the structure of rhodopsin is still uncertain. They may be concerned directly in binding the chromophore to opsin; or alternatively they may furnish hydrogen atoms for some reductive change by which the chromophore is formed from retinene₁. In the amperometric silver titration, the bleaching of rhodopsin yields directly an electrical variation. This phenomenon may have some fundamental connection with the role of rhodopsin in visual excitation, and may provide a model of the excitation process in general.     

The role of sulfhydryl groups in the functioning of DNA-dependent RNA-polymerase

Sulfhydryl groups of Escherichia coli DNA-dependent RNA polymerase were chemically modified with alkylating and mercuric-containing compounds. Iodoacetic acid and iodoacetamide were shown not to affect the enzymatic activity, whereas N-ethylmaleimide and mercuric-containing compounds completely inhibit the RNA synthesis. RNA polymerase modified with mercuric ions looses the ability of binding with promoter--containing DNA fragments. Moreover, mercuric ions inhibit the RNA elongation stage. Suggestion is made the Cys residues of RNA polymerase play a key role in double-stranded DNA unwinding. It is shown that SH-groups of beta- and beta'-subunits participate in the binding with double-stranded fragments of DNA.     

Unspecific DNA binding of the DNA binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor studied with flow linear dichroism

The unspecific interaction between the DNA-binding domain of the human glucocorticoid receptor and DNA was studied using linear dichroism (LD) and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. The amplitude of the LD signal was found to increase upon addition of protein at ionic strengths less than 60 nM Na+, indicating an increased persistence length of the complex compared to uncomplexed DNA. Analysis of the LD spectrum suggests that the binding does not involve intercalation of tyrosine residues. Evidence of saturation is found at a binding stoichiometry of approximately 5 DNA base pairs per protein monomer.     

Protein-protein contacts in the glucocorticoid receptor homodimer influence its DNA binding properties

We have investigated the influence of the N-terminal domain of the 94-kDa glucocorticoid receptor on the DNA:receptor interaction. An alpha-chymotrypsin-induced 39-kDa receptor fragment, containing the hormone and DNA binding domains, binds DNA with a reduced specificity compared to the intact 94-kDa receptor. Various footprinting assays did not reveal any qualitative differences when comparing the DNA contact points made by the two different receptor entities. Like the intact receptor, the 39-kDa receptor fragment binds as a dimer to DNA. Glutaraldehyde cross-linking demonstrated a difference in the protein:protein contacts of the two homodimers. Furthermore, the dimeric 94-kDa receptor did not recognize a half-DNA site, while the dissociated 94-kDa receptor dimer and the dimeric 39-kDa receptor fragment allowed binding to such a site. These results suggest that the loss of the N-terminal domain of the receptor affects the steric arrangement and/or rigidity of the two DNA binding domains of the receptor homodimer, resulting in a decreased DNA binding specificity of the 39-kDa receptor fragment.     

Modulation of DNA binding of glucocorticoid receptor by aurintricarboxylic acid

Effects of aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) were examined on the DNA binding properties of rat liver glucocorticoid-receptor complex. The DNA-cellulose binding capacity of the glucocorticoid-receptor complex was completely abolished by a pretreatment of receptor preparation with 0.1-0.5 mM ATA at 4 degrees C. The half-maximal inhibition (i.d.50) in the DNA binding of [3H]triamcinolone acetonide-receptor complex [( 3H]TARc) was observed at 130- and 40 microM ATA depending upon whether the inhibitor was added prior to or following the receptor activation. The entire DNA-cellulose bound [3H]TARc could be extracted in a concentration-dependent manner by incubation with 2-100 microns ATA. The [3H]TARc remained intact under the above conditions, the receptor in both control and ATA-treated preparations sedimented in the same region in salt-containing 5-20% sucrose gradients. The action of ATA appeared to be on the receptor and not on DNA-cellulose. The DNA-binding capacity of ATA-treated receptor preparations could be recovered upon exhaustive dialysis. The treatment with ATA did not appear to change the ionic behavior of heat activated GRc; the receptor in both control and the ATA-treated preparations showed similar elution profiles. Therefore, ATA appears to alter the binding to and dissociation of glucocorticoid-receptor complex from DNA. The use of ATA should offer a good chemical probe for analysis of the DNA binding domain(s) of the glucocorticoid receptor.     

The role of the anionic groups in the receptor binding of interleukin-8 antagonists

In an effort to determine the role of the acidic group in the receptor binding of N-(2-hydroxy-4-nitrophenyl)-N-(phenyl) urea, an interleukin-8B receptor antagonist, its binding and that of several analogs was measured as a function of pH. These titrations indicate that these ureas bind most strongly in their anionic form. Studies of antagonists, with different acidities, demonstrated that the greatest change in binding of each urea occurred around the pK_a of the compound being examined. The studies suggest that the increase in binding of the antagonists at higher pH is a result of the increased negative charge on the compounds rather than the effects of pH on the receptor or radioligand.     

Protein-protein interactions facilitate DNA binding by the glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domain

We have studied the interaction of the DNA-binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor with a glucocorticoid response element from the tyrosine aminotransferase gene. This response element consists of two binding sites (half-sites) for the glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domain. The sequences of these two half-sites are not identical, and we have previously shown that binding occurs preferentially to one of the half-sites (Tsai, S.-Y., Carlstedt-Duke, J., Weigel, N. L., Dahlman, K., Gustafsson, J.-A., Tsai, M.-J., and O'Malley, B. W. (1988) Cell 55, 361-369). We show here that binding to the low affinity half-site is dependent on previous occupancy of the high affinity half-site. This facilitated binding is dependent on the distance between the two half-sites and their relative orientation but is not dependent on the integrity of the DNA backbone. This is consistent with a model where DNA binding is not only dependent on interactions between the protein and its DNA target sequence but is also influenced by interactions between the protein molecules bound.     

The role of the anionic groups in the receptor binding of interleukin-8 antagonists

Summary In an effort to determine the role of the acidic group in the receptor binding ofN-(2-hydroxy-4-nitrophenyl)-N′-(phenyl) urea, an interleukin-8B receptor antagonist, its binding and that of several analogs was measured as a function of pH. These titrations indicate that these ureas bind most strongly in their anionic form. Studies of antagonists, with different acidities, demonstrated that the greatest change in binding of each urea occurred around the pK _a of the compound being examined. The studies suggest that the increase in binding of the antagonists at higher pH is a result of the increased negative charge on the compounds rather than the effects of pH on the receptor or radioligand.     

Evaluation of the role of ligand and thermal activation of specific DNA binding by in vitro synthesized human glucocorticoid receptor

We have used a DNA-binding/immunoprecipitation assay to analyze the capacity of human glucocorticoid receptor (hGR), generated in rabbit reticulocyte lysates, to bind DNA. In vitro translated hGR was indistinguishable from native hGR, as determined by migration on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels, sedimentation on sucrose density gradients, and reactivity with antipeptide antibodies generated against hGR. In addition, cell-free synthesized hGR was capable of specific binding to glucocorticoid response element (GRE)-containing DNA fragments. Using this assay system, we have evaluated the contributions of ligand binding and heat activation to DNA binding by these glucocorticoid receptors. In vitro translated hGR was capable of selective DNA binding even in the absence of glucocorticoid. Treatment with dexamethasone or the antiglucocorticoid RU486 had no additional effect on the DNA-binding capacity when receptor preparations were maintained at 0 C (no activation). In contrast, addition of either ligand or antagonist in combination with a heat activation step promoted DNA binding by approximately 3-fold over that of heat-activated unliganded receptors. Agonist (dexamethasone) was slightly more effective in supporting specific DNA binding than antagonist (RU486). DNA binding by in vitro synthesized GR was blocked by the addition of sodium molybdate to the receptor preparations before steroid addition and thermal activation. Addition of KCl resulted in less DNA binding either due to blockage of DNA-receptor complex formation or disruption of the complexes. The specificity of DNA binding by cell-free synthesized hGR was analyzed further by examining the abilities of various DNAs to compete for binding to a naturally occurring GRE found in the mouse mammary tumor virus-long terminal repeat. Oligonucleotides containing the consensus GRE were the most efficient competitors, and fragments containing regulatory sequences from glucocorticoid-repressible genes were somewhat competitive, whereas single stranded oligonucleotides were unable to compete for mouse mammary tumor virus-long terminal repeat DNA binding, except when competitor was present at extremely high concentrations. Together these studies indicate that hGR synthesized in rabbit reticulocyte lysates displays many of the same properties, including GRE-specific DNA binding, observed for glucocorticoid receptor present in cytosolic extracts of mammalian cells and tissues. Similarities between the effects of dexamethasone and RU486 suggest that the antiglucocorticoid properties of RU486 do not occur at the level of specific DNA binding.