ERG2 and ERG24 Are Required for Normal Vacuolar Physiology as Well as Candida albicans Pathogenicity in a Murine Model of Disseminated but Not Vaginal Candidiasis

Several important classes of antifungal agents, including the azoles, act by blocking ergosterol biosynthesis. It was recently reported that the azoles cause massive disruption of the fungal vacuole in the prevalent human pathogen Candida albicans. This is significant because normal vacuolar function is required to support C. albicans pathogenicity. This study examined the impact of the morpholine antifungals, which inhibit later steps of ergosterol biosynthesis, on C. albicans vacuolar integrity. It was found that overexpression of either the ERG2 or ERG24 gene, encoding C-8 sterol isomerase or C-14 sterol reductase, respectively, suppressed C. albicans sensitivity to the morpholines. In addition, both erg2Δ/Δ and erg24Δ/Δ mutants were hypersensitive to the morpholines. These data are consistent with the antifungal activity of the morpholines depending upon the simultaneous inhibition of both Erg2p and Erg24p. The vacuoles within both erg2Δ/Δ and erg24Δ/Δ C. albicans strains exhibited an aberrant morphology and accumulated large quantities of the weak base quinacrine, indicating enhanced vacuolar acidification compared with that of control strains. Both erg mutants exhibited significant defects in polarized hyphal growth and were avirulent in a mouse model of disseminated candidiasis. Surprisingly, in a mouse model of vaginal candidiasis, both mutants colonized mice at high levels and induced a pathogenic response similar to that with the controls. Thus, while targeting Erg2p or Erg24p alone could provide a potentially efficacious therapy for disseminated candidiasis, it may not be an effective strategy to treat vaginal infections. The potential value of drugs targeting these enzymes as adjunctive therapies is discussed.     

Mechanistic role of ergosterol in membrane rigidity and cycloheximide resistance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae defective in the late steps of ergosterol biosynthesis are viable but accumulate structurally altered sterols within the plasma membrane. Despite the significance of pleiotropic abnormalities in the erg mutants, little is known about how sterol alterations mechanically affect the membrane structure and correlate with individual mutant phenotypes. Here we demonstrate that the membrane order and occurrence of voids are determinants of membrane rigidity and hypersensitivity to a drug. Among five ergΔ mutants, the erg2Δ mutant exhibited the most marked sensitivity to cycloheximide. Notably, measurement of time-resolved anisotropy indicated that the erg2Δ mutation decreased the membrane order parameter (S), and dramatically increased the rotational diffusion coefficient (D_w) of 1-[4-(trimethylamino)pheny]-6-phenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (TMA-DPH) in the plasma membrane by 8-fold, providing evidence for the requirement of ergosterol for membrane integrity. The IC₅₀ of cycloheximide was closely correlated with S/D_w in these strains, suggesting that the membrane disorder and increasing occurrence of voids within the plasma membrane synergistically enhance passive diffusion of cycloheximide across the membrane. Exogenous ergosterol partially restored the membrane properties in the upc2-1erg2Δ strain. In this study, we describe the ability of ergosterol to adjust the dynamic properties of the plasma membrane, and consider the relevance of drug permeability.     

Functional Characterization of the Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ERG3 Ortholog,a Gene Involved in the Biosynthesis of Ergosterol

Background

The predominant sterol in the membranes of the alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is ergosterol, which is commonly found in the membranes of fungi, but is rarely found in higher plants. Higher plants and fungi synthesize sterols by different pathways, with plants producing cycloartenol as a precursor to end-product sterols, while non-photosynthesizing organisms like yeast and humans produce lanosterol as a precursor. Analysis of the C. reinhardtii genome sequence reveals that this algae is also likely to synthesize sterols using a pathway resembling the higher plant pathway, indicating that its sterols are synthesized somewhat differently than in fungi. The work presented here seeks to establish experimental evidence to support the annotated molecular function of one of the sterol biosynthetic genes in the Chlamydomonas genome.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A gene with homology to the yeast sterol C-5 desaturase, ERG3, is present in the Chlamydomonas genome. To test whether the ERG3 ortholog of C. reinhardtii encodes a sterol C-5 desaturase, Saccharomyces cerevisiae ERG3 knockout strains were created and complemented with a plasmid expressing the Chlamydomonas ERG3. Expression of C. reinhardtii ERG3 cDNA in erg3 null yeast was able to restore ergosterol biosynthesis and reverse phenotypes associated with lack of ERG3 function.

Conclusions/Significance

Complementation of the yeast erg3 null phenotypes strongly suggests that the gene annotated as ERG3 in C. reinhardtii functions as a sterol C-5 desaturase.     

Implications of sterol structure for membrane lipid composition, fluidity and phospholipid asymmetry in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Sterols are essential components of the plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells. Nystatin-resistant erg mutants were used in the present study to investigate the in vitro effects of altered sterol structure on membrane lipid composition, fluidity, and asymmetry of phospholipids. Quantitative analyses of the wild type and mutants erg2, erg3 and erg6 revealed that mutants have lower sterol (free)-to-phospholipid molar ratios than the wild type. Phosphatidylcholine content was decreased in erg2 and erg3 mutants; however, it was increased in erg6 strains as compared to normals. Phosphatidylserine content was increased in the erg6 mutant only. Fluorescence anisotropy decreased with temperature in both probes, and was lower for mutants than for the wild type, suggesting an increased freedom in rotational movement due to decreased membrane order. Investigation of changes in the aminophospholipid transbilayer distribution using two chemical probes, trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid and fluorescamine, revealed that the amounts of phosphatidylethanolamine derivatized by these probes were quite similar in both the wild type and various erg strains. The present findings suggest that adaptive responses in yeast cells with altered sterol structure are possibly manifested through changes in membrane lipid composition and fluidity, and not through transbilayer rearrangement of aminophospholipids.     

Specific sterols required for the internalization step of endocytosis in yeast

Sterols are major components of the plasma membrane, but their functions in this membrane are not well understood. We isolated a mutant defective in the internalization step of endocytosis in a gene (ERG2) encoding a C-8 sterol isomerase that acts in the late part of the ergosterol biosynthetic pathway. In the absence of Erg2p, yeast cells accumulate sterols structurally different from ergosterol, which is the major sterol in wild-type yeast. To investigate the structural requirements of ergosterol for endocytosis in more detail, several erg mutants (erg2Delta, erg6Delta, and erg2Deltaerg6Delta) were made. Analysis of fluid phase and receptor-mediated endocytosis indicates that changes in the sterol composition lead to a defect in the internalization step. Vesicle formation and fusion along the secretory pathway were not strongly affected in the ergDelta mutants. The severity of the endocytic defect correlates with changes in sterol structure and with the abundance of specific sterols in the ergDelta mutants. Desaturation of the B ring of the sterol molecules is important for the internalization step. A single desaturation at C-8,9 was not sufficient to support internalization at 37 degrees C whereas two double bonds, either at C-5,6 and C-7,8 or at C-5,6 and C-8,9, allowed internalization.     

Membrane Rafts Are Involved in Intracellular Miconazole Accumulation in Yeast Cells

Azoles inhibit ergosterol biosynthesis, resulting in ergosterol depletion and accumulation of toxic 14α-methylated sterols in membranes of susceptible yeast. We demonstrated previously that miconazole induces actin cytoskeleton stabilization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae prior to induction of reactive oxygen species, pointing to an ancillary mode of action. Using a genome-wide agar-based screening, we demonstrate in this study that S. cerevisiae mutants affected in sphingolipid and ergosterol biosynthesis, namely ipt1, sur1, skn1, and erg3 deletion mutants, are miconazole-resistant, suggesting an involvement of membrane rafts in its mode of action. This is supported by the antagonizing effect of membrane raft-disturbing compounds on miconazole antifungal activity as well as on miconazole-induced actin cytoskeleton stabilization and reactive oxygen species accumulation. These antagonizing effects point to a primary role for membrane rafts in miconazole antifungal activity. We further show that this primary role of membrane rafts in miconazole action consists of mediating intracellular accumulation of miconazole in yeast cells.     

Chs6p-dependent Anterograde Transport of Chs3p from the Chitosome to the Plasma Membrane in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Chitin synthase III (CSIII), an enzyme required to form a chitin ring in the nascent division septum of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, may be transported to the cell surface in a regulated manner. Chs3p, the catalytic subunit of CSIII, requires the product of CHS6 to be transported to or activated at the cell surface. We find that chs6Δ strains have morphological abnormalities similar to those of chs3 mutants. Subcellular fractionation and indirect immunofluorescence indicate that Chs3p distribution is altered in chs6 mutant cells. Order-of-function experiments using end4–1 (endocytosis-defective) and chs6 mutants indicate that Chs6p is required for anterograde transport of Chs3p from an internal endosome-like membrane compartment, the chitosome, to the plasma membrane. As a result, chs6 strains accumulate Chs3p in chitosomes. Chs1p, a distinct chitin synthase that acts during or after cell separation, is transported normally in chs6 mutants, suggesting that Chs1p and Chs3p are independently packaged during protein transport through the late secretory pathway.     

Osh6 overexpression extends the lifespan of yeast by increasing vacuole fusion

In yeast cells, the vacuole divides and fuses in each round of cell cycle. While mutants defective in vacuole fusion are “wild type” for vegetative growth, most have shortened replicative lifespans under caloric restriction (CR) condition, a manipulation that extends lifespan in wild type cells. To explore whether vacuole fusion extends lifespan, we screened for genes that can complement the fusion defect of selected mutants (erg6Δ, a sterol mutant; nyv1Δ, a mutant involved in the vacuolar SNARE complex and vac8Δ, a vacuolar membrane protein mutant). This screen revealed that Osh6, a member of the oxysterol-binding protein family, can complement the vacuole fusion defect of nyv1Δ, but not erg6Δ or vac8Δ, suggesting that Osh6’s function in vacuole fusion is partly dependent on membrane ergosterol and Vac8. To measure the effect of OSH6 on lifespan, we replaced the endogenous promoter of OSH6 with a shorter version of the ERG6 promoter to obtain P_ERG6-OSH6. This mutant construct significantly extended the replicative lifespan in a wild type background and in a nyv1Δ mutant. Interestingly, P_ERG6-OSH6 cells were more sensitive to drugs that inhibit the activity of the TOR complex 1 (TORC1) than wild type cells. Moreover, a P_ERG6-OSH6 tor1Δ double mutant demonstrated a greatly shortened lifespan, suggesting a genetic interaction between Osh6 and Tor1. Since active TORC1 stimulates vacuole scission and CR downregulates TORC1, Osh6 may link these two pathways by adjusting vacuolar membrane organization to extend lifespan.     

Cytostatic effects of structurally different ginsenosides on yeast cells with altered sterol biosynthesis and transport

Triterpene glycosides are a diverse group of plant secondary metabolites, consisting of a sterol-like aglycon and one or several sugar groups. A number of triterpene glycosides show membranolytic activity, and, therefore, are considered to be promising antimicrobial drugs. However, the interrelation between their structure, biological activities, and target membrane lipid composition remains elusive. Here we studied the antifungal effects of four Panax triterpene glycosides (ginsenosides) with sugar moieties at the C-3 (ginsenosides Rg3, Rh2), C-20 (compound K), and both (ginsenoside F2) positions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae mutants with altered sterol plasma membrane composition. We observed reduced cytostatic activity of the Rg3 and compound K in the UPC2-1 strain with high membrane sterol content. Moreover, LAM gene deletion reduced yeast resistance to Rg3 and digitonin, another saponin with glycosylated aglycon in the C-3 position. LAM genes encode plasma membrane-anchored StARkin superfamily-member sterol transporters. We also showed that the deletion of the ERG6 gene that inhibits ergosterol biosynthesis at the stage of zymosterol increased the cytostatic effects of Rg3 and Rh2, but not the other two tested ginsenosides. At the same time, in silico simulation revealed that the substitution of ergosterol with zymosterol in the membrane changes the spatial orientation of Rg3 and Rh2 in the membranes. These results imply that the plasma membrane sterol composition defines its interaction with triterpene glycoside depending on their glycoside group position. Our results also suggest that the biological role of membrane-anchored StARkin family protein is to protect eukaryotic cells from triterpenes glycosylated at the C-3 position.     

The yeast gene ERG6 is required for normal membrane function but is not essential for biosynthesis of the cell-cycle-sparking sterol.

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, methylation of the principal membrane sterol at C-24 produces the C-28 methyl group specific to ergosterol and represents one of the few structural differences between ergosterol and cholesterol. C-28 in S. cerevisiae has been suggested to be essential for the sparking function (W. J. Pinto and W. R. Nes, J. Biol. Chem. 258:4472-4476, 1983), a cell cycle event that may be required to enter G1 (C. Dahl, H.-P. Biemann, and J. Dahl, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:4012-4016, 1987). The sterol biosynthetic pathway in S. cerevisiae was genetically altered to assess the functional role of the C-28 methyl group of ergosterol. ERG6, the putative structural gene for S-adenosylmethionine: delta 24-methyltransferase, which catalyzes C-24 methylation, was cloned, and haploid strains containing erg6 null alleles (erg6 delta 1 and erg6 delta ::LEU2) were generated. Although erg6 delta cells are unable to methylate ergosterol precursors at C-24, they exhibit normal vegatative growth, suggesting that C-28 sterols are not essential in S. cerevisiae. However, erg6 delta cells exhibit pleiotropic phenotypes that include defective conjugation, hypersensitivity to cycloheximide, resistance to nystatin, a severely diminished capacity for genetic transformation, and defective tryptophan uptake. These phenotypes reflect the role of ergosterol as a regulator of membrane permeability and fluidity. Genetic mapping experiments revealed that ERG6 is located on chromosome XIII, tightly linked to sec59.     

A Genetic and Pharmacological Analysis of Isoprenoid Pathway by LC-MS/MS in Fission Yeast

Currently, statins are the only drugs acting on the mammalian isoprenoid pathway. The mammalian genes in this pathway are not easily amenable to genetic manipulation. Thus, it is difficult to study the effects of the inhibition of various enzymes on the intermediate and final products in the isoprenoid pathway. In fission yeast, antifungal compounds such as azoles and terbinafine are available as inhibitors of the pathway in addition to statins, and various isoprenoid pathway mutants are also available. Here in these mutants, treated with statins or antifungals, we quantified the final and intermediate products of the fission yeast isoprenoid pathway using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry. In hmg1-1, a mutant of the gene encoding 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (HMGR), ergosterol (a final sterol product), and squalene (an intermediate pathway product), were decreased to approximately 80% and 10%, respectively, compared with that of wild-type cells. Consistently in wild-type cells, pravastatin, an HMGR inhibitor decreased ergosterol and squalene, and the effect was more pronounced on squalene. In hmg1-1 mutant and in wild-type cells treated with pravastatin, the decrease in the levels of farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate respectively was larger than that of ergosterol but was smaller than that of squalene. In Δerg6 or Δsts1 cells, mutants of the genes involved in the last step of the pathway, ergosterol was not detected, and the changes of intermediate product levels were distinct from that of hmg1-1 mutant. Notably, in wild-type cells miconazole and terbinafine only slightly decreased ergosterol level. Altogether, these studies suggest that the pleiotropic phenotypes caused by the hmg1-1 mutation and pravastatin might be due to decreased levels of isoprenoid pyrophosphates or other isoprenoid pathway intermediate products rather than due to a decreased ergosterol level.     

Characterization of a mutation that results in independence of oxidosqualene cyclase (Erg7) activity from the downstream 3-ketoreductase (Erg27) in the yeast ergosterol biosynthetic pathway

In yeast, deletion of ERG27, which encodes the sterol biosynthetic enzyme, 3-keto-reductase, results in a concomitant loss of the upstream enzyme, Erg7p, an oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC). However, this phenomenon occurs only in fungi, as mammalian Erg27p orthologues are unable to rescue yeast Erg7p activity. In this study, an erg27 mutant containing the mouse ERG27 orthologue was isolated that was capable of growing without sterol supplementation (FGerg27). GC/MS analysis of this strain showed an accumulation of squalene epoxides, 3-ketosterones, and ergosterol. This strain which was crossed to a wildtype and daughter segregants showed an accumulation of squalene epoxides as well as ergosterol indicating that the mutation entailed a leaky block at ERG7. Upon sequencing the yeast ERG7 gene an A598S alteration was found in a conserved alpha helical region. We theorize that this mutation stabilizes Erg7p in a conformation that mimics Erg27p binding. This mutation, while decreasing OSC activity still retains sufficient residual OSC activity such that the strain in the presence of the mammalian 3-keto reductase enzyme functions and no longer requires the yeast Erg27p. Because sterol biosynthesis occurs in the ER, a fusion protein was synthesized combining Erg7p and Erg28p, a resident ER protein and scaffold of the C-4 demethyation complex. Both FGerg27 and erg27 strains containing this fusion plasmid and the mouse ERG27 orthologue showed restoration of ergosterol biosynthesis with minimal accumulation of squalene epoxides. These results indicate retention of Erg7p in the ER increases its activity and suggest a novel method of regulation of ergosterol biosynthesis.     

Role of DNA mismatch repair and double-strand break repair in genome stability and antifungal drug resistance in Candida albicans

Drug resistance has become a major problem in the treatment of Candida albicans infections. Genome changes, such as aneuploidy, translocations, loss of heterozygosity, or point mutations, are often observed in clinical isolates that have become resistant to antifungal drugs. To determine whether these types of alterations result when DNA repair pathways are eliminated, we constructed yeast strains bearing deletions in six genes involved in mismatch repair (MSH2 and PMS1) or double-strand break repair (MRE11, RAD50, RAD52, and YKU80). We show that the mre11Δ/mre11Δ, rad50Δ/rad50Δ, and rad52Δ/rad52Δ mutants are slow growing and exhibit a wrinkly colony phenotype and that cultures of these mutants contain abundant elongated pseudohypha-like cells. These same mutants are susceptible to hydrogen peroxide, tetrabutyl hydrogen peroxide, UV radiation, camptothecin, ethylmethane sulfonate, and methylmethane sulfonate. The msh2Δ/msh2Δ, pms1Δ/pms1Δ, and yku80Δ/yku80Δ mutants exhibit none of these phenotypes. We observed an increase in genome instability in mre11Δ/mre11Δ and rad50Δ/rad50Δ mutants by using a GAL1/URA3 marker system to monitor the integrity of chromosome 1. We investigated the acquisition of drug resistance in the DNA repair mutants and found that deletion of mre11Δ/mre11Δ, rad50Δ/rad50Δ, or rad52Δ/rad52Δ leads to an increased susceptibility to fluconazole. Interestingly, we also observed an elevated frequency of appearance of drug-resistant colonies for both msh2Δ/msh2Δ and pms1Δ/pms1Δ (MMR mutants) and rad50Δ/rad50Δ (DSBR mutant). Our data demonstrate that defects in double-strand break repair lead to an increase in genome instability, while drug resistance arises more rapidly in C. albicans strains lacking mismatch repair proteins or proteins central to double-strand break repair.     

Dual Localization of Squalene Epoxidase, Erg1p, in Yeast Reflects a Relationship between the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Lipid Particles

Squalene epoxidase, encoded by the ERG1 gene in yeast, is a key enzyme of sterol biosynthesis. Analysis of subcellular fractions revealed that squalene epoxidase was present in the microsomal fraction (30,000 × g) and also cofractionated with lipid particles. A dual localization of Erg1p was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy. On the basis of the distribution of marker proteins, 62% of cellular Erg1p could be assigned to the endoplasmic reticulum and 38% to lipid particles in late logarithmic-phase cells. In contrast, sterol Δ²⁴-methyltransferase (Erg6p), an enzyme catalyzing a late step in sterol biosynthesis, was found mainly in lipid particles cofractionating with triacylglycerols and steryl esters. The relative distribution of Erg1p between the endoplasmic reticulum and lipid particles changes during growth. Squalene epoxidase (Erg1p) was absent in an erg1 disruptant strain and was induced fivefold in lipid particles and in the endoplasmic reticulum when the ERG1 gene was overexpressed from a multicopy plasmid. The amount of squalene epoxidase in both compartments was also induced approximately fivefold by treatment of yeast cells with terbinafine, an inhibitor of the fungal squalene epoxidase. In contrast to the distribution of the protein, enzymatic activity of squalene epoxidase was only detectable in the endoplasmic reticulum but was absent from isolated lipid particles. When lipid particles of the wild-type strain and microsomes of an erg1 disruptant were mixed, squalene epoxidase activity was partially restored. These findings suggest that factor(s) present in the endoplasmic reticulum are required for squalene epoxidase activity. Close contact between lipid particles and endoplasmic reticulum may be necessary for a concerted action of these two compartments in sterol biosynthesis.     

The Sur7 protein regulates plasma membrane organization and prevents intracellular cell wall growth in Candida albicans

The Candida albicans plasma membrane plays important roles in cell growth and as a target for antifungal drugs. Analysis of Ca-Sur7 showed that this four transmembrane domain protein localized to stable punctate patches, similar to the plasma membrane subdomains known as eisosomes or MCC that were discovered in S. cerevisiae. The localization of Ca-Sur7 depended on sphingolipid synthesis. In contrast to S. cerevisiae, a C. albicans sur7Δ mutant displayed defects in endocytosis and morphogenesis. Septins and actin were mislocalized, and cell wall synthesis was very abnormal, including long projections of cell wall into the cytoplasm. Several phenotypes of the sur7Δ mutant are similar to the effects of inhibiting β-glucan synthase, suggesting that the abnormal cell wall synthesis is related to activation of chitin synthase activity seen under stress conditions. These results expand the roles of eisosomes by demonstrating that Sur7 is needed for proper plasma membrane organization and cell wall synthesis. A conserved Cys motif in the first extracellular loop of fungal Sur7 proteins is similar to a characteristic motif of the claudin proteins that form tight junctions in animal cells, suggesting a common role for these tetraspanning membrane proteins in forming specialized plasma membrane domains.     

Loss of Vacuolar H+-ATPase Activity in Organelles Signals Ubiquitination and Endocytosis of the Yeast Plasma Membrane Proton pump Pma1p

Yeast mutants lacking the intracellular V-ATPase proton pump (vma mutants) have reduced levels of the Pma1p proton pump at the plasma membrane and increased levels in organelles including the vacuolar lumen. We examined the mechanism and physiological consequences of Pma1p mislocalization. Pma1p is ubiquitinated in vma mutants, and ubiquitination depends on the ubiquitin ligase Rsp5p and the arrestin-related adaptor protein Rim8p. vma mutant strains containing rsp5 or rim8 mutations maintain Pma1p at the plasma membrane, suggesting that ubiquitination is required for Pma1p internalization. Acute inhibition of V-ATPase activity with concanamycin A triggers Pma1p ubiquitination and internalization. In an endocytosis-deficient mutant (end4Δ) Pma1p is ubiquitinated but retained at the plasma membrane during concanamycin A treatment. Consistent with specificity in signaling loss of V-ATPase activity to Pma1p, another plasma membrane transporter, Mup1p, is not internalized in a vma mutant, and loss of the Mup1p adaptor Art1p does not prevent Pma1p internalization in a vma mutant. Very poor growth of vma2 rsp5-1 and vma2 rim8Δ double mutants suggests that Pma1p internalization benefits the vma mutants. We hypothesize that loss of V-ATPase-mediated organelle acidification signals ubiquitination, internalization, and degradation of a portion of Pma1p as a means of balancing overall pH homeostasis.