A Single Amino Acid in the Stalk Region of the H1N1pdm Influenza Virus HA Protein Affects Viral Fusion,Stability and Infectivity

The 2009 H1N1 pandemic (H1N1pdm) viruses have evolved to contain an E47K substitution in the HA2 subunit of the stalk region of the hemagglutinin (HA) protein. The biological significance of this single amino acid change was investigated by comparing A/California/7/2009 (HA2-E47) with a later strain, A/Brisbane/10/2010 (HA2-K47). The E47K change was found to reduce the threshold pH for membrane fusion from 5.4 to 5.0. An inter-monomer salt bridge between K47 in HA2 and E21 in HA1, a neighboring highly conserved residue, which stabilized the trimer structure, was found to be responsible for the reduced threshold pH for fusion. The higher structural and acid stability of the HA trimer caused by the E47K change also conferred higher viral thermal stability and infectivity in ferrets, suggesting a fitness advantage for the E47K evolutionary change in humans. Our study indicated that the pH of HA fusion activation is an important factor for influenza virus replication and host adaptation. The identification of this genetic signature in the HA stalk region that influences vaccine virus thermal stability also has significant implications for influenza vaccine production.     

Insights into Avian Influenza Virus Pathogenicity: the Hemagglutinin Precursor HA0 of Subtype H16 Has an Alpha-Helix Structure in Its Cleavage Site with Inefficient HA1/HA2 Cleavage

With a new serotype (H17) of hemagglutinin (HA) recently being discovered, there are now 17 serotypes (H1 to H17) of influenza A viruses in total. It is believed that HA is initially expressed as a precursor of HA0 and then cleaved into HA1 and HA2, forming a disulfide bond-linked complex, for its full function. Structural data show that a loop structure exists in the cleavage site between HA1 and HA2, and this flexible loop is crucial for the efficient cleavage of HA0. Here, the crystal structures of H16 (a low-pathogenicity avian influenza virus) in their HA0 form (H16HA0) have been solved at 1.7-Å and 2.0-Å resolutions. To our surprise, an α-helix element in the cleavage site which inserts into the negatively charged cavity with the key residue R329 hidden behind the helix was observed. In vitro trypsin cleavage experiments demonstrated inefficient cleavage of H16HA0 under both neutral and low-pH conditions. The results provide new insights into influenza A virus pathogenicity; both the relatively stable α-helix structure in the flexible cleavage loop and inaccessibility of the cleavage site likely contribute to the low pathogenicity of avian influenza A virus. Furthermore, compared to all of the HAs whose structures have been solved, H16 is a good reference for assigning the HA subtypes into two groups on the basis of the three-dimensional structure, which is consistent with the phylogenetic grouping. We conclude that in light of the current H16HA0 structure, the natural α-helix element might provide a new opportunity for influenza virus inhibitor design.     

Mechanisms of Hemagglutinin Targeted Influenza Virus Neutralization

Human monoclonal antibodies have been identified which neutralize broad spectra of influenza A or B viruses. Here, we dissect the mechanisms by which such antibodies interfere with infectivity. We distinguish four mechanisms that link the conserved hemagglutinin (HA) epitopes of broadly neutralizing antibodies to critical processes in the viral life cycle. HA-stem binding antibodies can act intracellularly by blocking fusion between the viral and endosomal membranes and extracellularly by preventing the proteolytic activation of HA. HA-head binding antibodies prevent viral attachment and release. These insights into newly identified ways by which the human immune system can interfere with influenza virus infection may aid the development of novel universal vaccines and antivirals.     

共表达禽流感病毒HA和NA基因重组禽痘病毒的遗传稳定性

将表达禽流感病毒H5HA及N1NA基因的重组禽痘病毒rFPV HA NA连续传代至 2 5代 ,取第 5、15及 2 5代重组病毒作为受检代次 ,进行外源基因的PCR扩增与测序 ,同时比较这 3个代次重组禽痘病毒的免疫效力。结果对各代次重组病毒DNA的模板进行PCR扩增 ,均能够获得HA和NA两个目的片段 ;经测序证明两个外源基因在细胞传代过程中没有发生氨基酸水平的改变。动物试验结果表明 ,该重组病毒的毒力在细胞传代过程中没有发生变化 ,接种试验鸡后在鸡体内能够检测到外源基因的存在 ,各免疫组在免疫 2周后的抗体效价平均为 6 5log2 ,完全抵抗了高致病力禽流感病毒的攻击。以上结果表明此重组病毒具有较好的遗传稳定性 ,经过 2 5代的传代后 ,所插入的外源基因及其表达产物的免疫原性未见变化 ,重组病毒的免疫效力相当稳定。     

Isolation of Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase Subunits of Hemagglutinating Virus of Japan

When purified hemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ) was treated with trypsin, two major surface antigens were released from the virus. The "hemagglutinin" subunits obtained by this method were reactive with homologous hemagglutination-inhibition antibody and could be detected by an antibody-blocking test. They adsorbed to but did not agglutinate red cells and thus appeared to be "monovalent." The neuraminidase subunits were obtained in fully active form and did not adsorb to red cells. This finding suggests that these two activities of HVJ are associated with different subunits of the virus particle. The hemagglutinin and neuraminidase subunits could be partially separated by zonal rate centrifugation or gel filtration on Sephadex G-200. The molecular weights estimated for these subunits were approximately 124,000 and 114,000, respectively. After treatment with trypsin, virus-associated hemagglutinin and neuraminidase activities were both reduced significantly. The electron micrographs of such trypsinized virus particles showed complete or partial loss of surface projections. These results suggested that the subunits obtained by this method seemed to be those projections liberated from the virus by the action of trypsin.     

H5亚型禽流感重组鸡痘病毒活载体疫苗的构建及其遗传稳定性与免疫效力

以鹅源H5亚型禽流感病毒(AIV)基因组为模板,用RTPCR扩增血凝素（Hemagglutinin, HA）基因,克隆入鸡痘病毒表达载体pFG1175,转染鸡痘病毒感染的鸡胚成纤维细胞,通过蓝斑筛选和间接免疫荧光检测,获得表达HA基因的重组鸡痘病毒（Recombinant fowlpox virus, rFPVHA）。rFPVHA经鸡胚成纤维细胞连续传15代后,报告基因LacZ和HA基因可稳定表达。用103PFU和105PFU的rFPVHA免疫无特定病原体的(Specific pathogen free, SPF)鸡,免疫后22d 血凝抑制(Hemagglutinin inhibition,HI)抗体监测阳性率分别为0%和20%,但均抵御了H5亚型毒株的致死性攻击,保护率为100%。结果表明,构建了表达HA基因的重组鸡痘病毒,该重组病毒具有良好遗传稳定性,免疫鸡可提供完全保护,显示出了一定的应用前景。     

Localization Analysis of Heterophilic Antigen Epitopes of H1N1 Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin

Previous studies have indicated that two monoclonal antibodies(mAbs; A1-10 and H1-84) of the hemagglutinin(HA)antigen on the H1 N1 influenza virus cross-react with human brain tissue. It has been proposed that there are heterophilic epitopes between the HA protein and human brain tissue(Guo et al. in Immunobiology 220:941–946, 2015). However,characterisation of the two mAbs recognising the heterophilic epitope on HA has not yet been performed. In the present study, the common antigens of influenza virus HA were confirmed using indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and analysed with DNAMAN software. The epitopes were localized to nine peptides in the influenza virus HA sequence and the distribution of the peptides in the three-dimensional structure of HA was determined using PyMOL software. Key amino acids and variable sequences of the antibodies were identified using abYsis software. The results demonstrated that there were a number of common antigens among the five influenza viruses studied that were recognised by the mAbs. One of the peptides, P2(LVLWGIHHP191–199), bound both of the mAbs and was located in the head region of HA. The key amino acids of this epitope and the variable regions in the heavy and light chain sequences of the mAbs that recognised the epitope are described. A heterophilic epitope on H1 N1 influenza virus HA was also introduced. The existence of this epitope provides a novel perspective for the occurrence of nervous system diseases that could be caused by influenza virus infection, which might aid in influenza prevention and control.     

Glycosylation of Residue 141 of Subtype H7 Influenza A Hemagglutinin (HA) Affects HA-Pseudovirus Infectivity and Sensitivity to Site A Neutralizing Antibodies

Human infections with H7 subtype influenza virus have been reported, including an H7N7 outbreak in Netherlands in 2003 and H7N9 infections in China in 2013. Previously, we reported murine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that recognize the antigenic site A of H7 hemagglutinin (HA). To better understand protective immunity of H7 vaccines and vaccine candidate selection, we used these mAbs to assess the antigenic relatedness among two H7 HA isolated from past human infections and determine residues that affect susceptibility to neutralization. We found that these mAbs neutralize pseudoviruses bearing HA of A/Shanghai/02/2013(H7N9), but not A/Netherlands/219/2003(H7N7). Glycosylation of the asparagine residue at position 141 (N141) (N133, H3 HA numbering) in the HA of A/Netherlands/219/2003 HA is responsible for this resistance, and it affects the infectivity of HA-pseudoviruses. The presence of threonine at position 143 (T135, H3 HA numbering) in the HA of A/Netherlands/219/2003, rather than an alanine found in the HA of A/Shanghai/02/2013(H7N9), accounts for these differences. These results demonstrate a key role for glycosylation of residue N141 in affecting H7 influenza HA-mediated entry and sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies, which have implications for candidate vaccine design.     

1981～2005年中国H1N1甲型流感病毒血凝素基因的HA1演变特征

为了解1981~2005年我国H1N1甲型流感病毒血凝素基因的HA1演变特征,选取H1N1甲型流感病毒370株,提取病毒RNA,经逆转录和聚合酶链反应扩增HA1并测序,测定的序列用生物信息软件分析,与GenBank中相关序列比较,并对推导的编码氨基酸序列进行基因特性分析。结果表明:HA1氨基酸的变异表现为抗原决定簇4个区均有变异,Sb区和Ca区变化较大;HA1受体结合位点(RBS)的前壁130环的第134位赖氨酸从1991年起在部分毒株HA1序列上开始缺失,以后缺失株逐步增多,自2000年起测定的所有毒株上该氨基酸全部缺失,同时这些缺失株的第137位氨基酸也全部由苏氨酸替换为丝氨酸;糖基化位点从增多到减少,最后稳定在7个;1981~2004年我国H1N1甲型流感病毒血凝素HA1编码的氨基酸在种系发育树上同年代基本呈现集中分布,与时间和地域无关,2005年毒株分成两个分支在时间上有明显差异。     

Hemagglutinin Stalk Immunity Reduces Influenza Virus Replication and Transmission in Ferrets

We assessed whether influenza virus hemagglutinin stalk-based immunity protects ferrets against aerosol-transmitted H1N1 influenza virus infection. Immunization of ferrets by a universal influenza virus vaccine strategy based on viral vectors expressing chimeric hemagglutinin constructs induced stalk-specific antibody responses. Stalk-immunized ferrets were cohoused with H1N1-infected ferrets under conditions that permitted virus transmission. Hemagglutinin stalk-immunized ferrets had lower viral titers and delayed or no virus replication at all following natural exposure to influenza virus.     

Antibody Recognition of the Pandemic H1N1 Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin Receptor Binding Site

Influenza virus is a global health concern due to its unpredictable pandemic potential. This potential threat was realized in 2009 when an H1N1 virus emerged that resembled the 1918 virus in antigenicity but fortunately was not nearly as deadly. 5J8 is a human antibody that potently neutralizes a broad spectrum of H1N1 viruses, including the 1918 and 2009 pandemic viruses. Here, we present the crystal structure of 5J8 Fab in complex with a bacterially expressed and refolded globular head domain from the hemagglutinin (HA) of the A/California/07/2009 (H1N1) pandemic virus. 5J8 recognizes a conserved epitope in and around the receptor binding site (RBS), and its HCDR3 closely mimics interactions of the sialic acid receptor. Electron microscopy (EM) reconstructions of 5J8 Fab in complex with an HA trimer from a 1986 H1 strain and with an engineered stabilized HA trimer from the 2009 H1 pandemic virus showed a similar mode of binding. As for other characterized RBS-targeted antibodies, 5J8 uses avidity to extend its breadth and affinity against divergent H1 strains. 5J8 selectively interacts with HA insertion residue 133a, which is conserved in pandemic H1 strains and has precluded binding of other RBS-targeted antibodies. Thus, the RBS of divergent HAs is targeted by 5J8 and adds to the growing arsenal of common recognition motifs for design of therapeutics and vaccines. Moreover, consistent with previous studies, the bacterially expressed H1 HA properly refolds, retaining its antigenic structure, and presents a low-cost and rapid alternative for engineering and manufacturing candidate flu vaccines.     

不同特征描述下H1N1病毒血凝素蛋白序列的比较分析

在传统表征蛋白质序列的40维特征向量的基础上,依据氨基酸的种类与理化性质,将蛋白质序列40维向量分解为20维、4维和16维3种子特征向量描述。结合33条H1N1流感病毒血凝素(hemagglutinin,HA)蛋白质序列和统计学相关性分析理论,进行了蛋白质序列两两之间及每条病毒蛋白质序列对应的不同子特征向量之间的相关性分析,发现病毒蛋白质序列之间存在高度相关性,且每条病毒蛋白质序列对应的20维子特征向量与其他两种子特征向量之间均不显著相关,而4维与16维子特征向量之间显著相关。进一步依据不同的特征向量对33条HA蛋白质序列进行分类,研究发现依据40维特征向量与16维特征向量进行的分类结果高度一致。因此,在不影响表征病毒序列特性的前提下,对于已有的表征蛋白质序列的40维特征向量,可以用16维的特征向量进行代替,以减少计算复杂度。     

三株交叉反应性的流感病毒HA抗体与H1N1流感病毒的致病机制分析

目的:结合临床甲型流感病例分析流感病毒可能的致病机理。方法:收集87份陕西省2009年甲型H1N1流感重症,危重症及死亡病例的血常规参数,对其淋巴细胞、红细胞和血小板三个指标分析。制备针对甲型H1N1的单克隆抗体,采用抗体亚类鉴定试剂盒分析其抗体轻链和重链的亚型,通过血凝活性实验检测三株抗体的血凝抑制活性,通过ELISA检测三株抗体与人和小鼠的血红蛋白、红细胞、白细胞膜和血小板膜的反应,通过免疫组化分析三株流感病毒抗体与正常小鼠肺组织的结合。结果:流感病毒感染后的死亡病例中淋巴细胞、红细胞和血小板均明显降低。三株抗体与人和小鼠的淋巴细胞、红细胞和血小板均有不同程度的交叉反应;免疫组化结果同时也证实三株HA抗体与小鼠的肺组织有不同的结合力。结论:流感病毒致病的原因可能与流感病毒感染机体后产生的抗体可与血液和组织中的成分结合有关。     

Mouse Dendritic Cell (DC) Influenza Virus Infectivity Is Much Lower than That for Human DCs and Is Hemagglutinin Subtype Dependent

We show that influenza A H1N1 virus infection leads to very low infectivity in mouse dendritic cells (DCs) in vitro compared with that in human DCs. This holds when H3 or H5 replaces H1 in recombinant viruses. Viruslike particles confirm the difference between mouse and human, suggesting that reduced virus entry contributes to lower mouse DC infectivity. Low infectivity of mouse DCs should be considered when they are used to study responses of DCs that are actually infected.     

Design and Structure of an Engineered Disulfide-Stabilized Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin Trimer

We engineered a disulfide-stabilized influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA) trimer, termed HA₃-SS, by introducing cysteine residues into the HA stem to covalently bridge the three protomers. HA₃-SS has increased thermostability compared to wild-type HA, and binding of head- and stem-targeted antibodies (Abs) is preserved; only minor structural changes are found in the vicinity of the additional disulfide. This platform has been applied to H1 and H3 HAs and provides prospects for design of intact, stabilized influenza virus HA immunogens.     

Intracellular Cleavage of Human Influenza A Virus Hemagglutinin and Its Inhibition

Replication of human influenza A viruses and proteolytic cleavage of the viral glycoprotein HA0 HA1/2 were studied in passaged cultures of epithelial cells of the serous membrane of human large intestine (CACO-2 line), dog kidney cells (MDCK), and monkey kidney cells (CV-1). Cleavage of the viral glycoprotein HA0, synthesis of activated virions, multicycle virus infection, and effective production of viral foci under an agarose overlayer were found in CACO-2 cells. By pulse–chase labeling of viral glycoproteins, testing the sensitivity to endoglycosidase-H of the viral glycoproteins HA0 and HA1/2 synthesized, and inhibiting the HA0 proteolysis with brefeldin A, the HA0 HA1/2 proteolysis was established to occur in the late stages of intracellular transport in the trans-Golgi and plasma membrane areas of the cells. Proteolysis of the viral glycoprotein HA0 in CACO-2 cells was suppressed by aprotinin, a natural inhibitor of serine proteinases. Unlike MDCK and CV-1 cells resistant to apoptosis induced by influenza virus, CACO-2 cells retained their viability for 2-3 days after infection with human influenza A virus.