健康和脑损伤下小胶质细胞在成年海马神经发生中的调节作用

成年脑内终生存在持续性神经发生,该过程受多种内外因素的调节.小胶质细胞是脑内固有的免疫细胞,在维持脑稳态和脑的免疫调节方面起着重要作用.越来越多的研究显示,小胶质细胞通过吞噬作用清除细胞碎片,并通过与神经元的直接接触和/或释放可溶性因子影响成年海马神经发生.本文综述了在生理状态下,小胶质细胞如何调控成年海马神经干/祖细胞及新生神经元的不同阶段,进而调节神经发生.此外,本文还综述了在脑损伤条件下,海马神经发生和小胶质细胞形态功能的变化,以及如何通过干预小胶质细胞影响海马神经发生,为应用小胶质细胞促进脑的内源性修复提供理论依据.     

小胶质细胞极化与抑郁症关系的研究进展

小胶质细胞控制着中枢神经系统主要的免疫功能,在各种精神疾病中发挥重要作用. 某些信号通路的激活引发的神经炎症与抑郁症的发生有着密切的关系. 小胶质细胞是神经炎症的主要介导者,不同的刺激促进小胶质细胞极化,不同极化类型的小胶质细胞能分泌多种炎性细胞因子,在神经炎症调节中具有重要的作用. 临床研究和体内外实验研究表明,抑郁症与小胶质细胞极化介导的神经炎症有关. 小胶质细胞极化参与抑郁症发生发展的可能机制包括NF-κB信号通路激活、呼吸爆发、补体受体3信号通路、NLRP3炎症激活、cannibalism受体1、Notch-1信号通路和过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ的激活. 本文就小胶质细胞极化与抑郁关系的研究进展作一综述.     

自噬与小胶质细胞相关神经炎症

小胶质细胞是中枢神经系统中重要的神经免疫细胞,当中枢神经系统受到刺激后,小胶质细胞通过炎症反应来应对这种刺激,这种炎症反应在神经性疾病中具有重要作用。研究发现,小胶质细胞自噬在炎症的发生与发展中也发挥了重要作用,它能直接或间接地影响炎症反应,同时自身也被其他信号调控。自噬过程有利有弊,适当的自噬过程能促进疾病的恢复,自噬紊乱则使病情恶化,所以明确自噬的调控机制对治疗和预防相关疾病具有重要意义。本文综述了近年来自噬在小胶质细胞相关炎症中研究进展,以及其可能的调控机制,以期为相关研究人员提供一定帮助。     

小胶质细胞活化在运动延缓AD发病中的作用研究进展

随着全球老龄化趋势的加剧,阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease, AD)成为影响老年人健康的主要神经退行性疾病。小胶质细胞是中枢神经系统固有的免疫细胞,但被异常激活释放炎症因子时,将加剧认知功能衰退。研究表明,运动可能通过调节小胶质细胞活化及表型,增加其抗炎因子释放,清除Aβ沉积,减少神经纤维缠结,延缓AD病发,因此,小胶质细胞表型的稳态调节可能是治疗神经退行性疾病的有效途径。该文将探讨运动调节小胶质细胞活化及表型的可能机制,总结不同运动项目、干预时间、运动强度调节小胶质细胞动态变化从而延缓AD的研究进展,为运动干预神经系统退行性疾病提供理论支持。     

小胶质细胞极化在抑郁症发病中的作用

应激可诱发抑郁症,严重影响人们的身心健康。小胶质细胞是中枢神经系统的主要免疫细胞,在各种神经退行性疾病中发挥重要作用。不同极化类型的小胶质细胞可分泌不同作用的炎症因子,介导神经炎症,与抑郁症的发生密切相关,但目前其机制尚不明确。抑郁症与应激、小胶质细胞极化和神经炎症等因素的相互作用有关。本文综述了小胶质细胞极化在抑郁症发病中的作用研究进展。     

小胶质细胞代谢重编程在神经退行性疾病中的作用

小胶质细胞作为大脑重要的固有免疫细胞,在神经免疫反应中发挥重要作用.小胶质细胞具有高度可塑性,可根据不同信号刺激表现出不同功能表型,而小胶质细胞代谢重编程可解释不同代谢途径对小胶质细胞功能表型和极化状态的调控影响.本文将重点讨论代谢重编程对小胶质细胞可塑性和功能的影响及其与神经退行性疾病之间的关系.     

小胶质细胞与创伤性脑损伤关系的研究进展

创伤性脑损伤(traumatic brain injury,TBI)是全球范围内人类致残和致死的主要原因之一,目前尚无有效的治疗方案。TBI可分为两个阶段:瞬时的原发性损伤,发生在损伤瞬间;以及之后的继发性损伤,该阶段涉及一系列复杂的病理过程。神经炎症是TBI的一个标志,它被认为是一个决定TBI转归的主要因素。作为中枢神经系统中的第一道也是最主要的一道免疫防线,小胶质细胞在TBI发生后被迅速激活,其表型随脑内微环境的变化而变化,表现出神经保护和神经毒性双重作用,因此小胶质细胞被视为治疗TBI的一个重要靶点。该文对TBI发生后小胶质细胞的时空特征、功能及以小胶质细胞为靶点的治疗方法的研究进展作一综述。     

小胶质细胞的发育调控

小胶质细胞最初被del Rio-Hortega定义。作为中枢神经系统的巨噬细胞,小胶质细胞的正常功能对于清除凋亡细胞、修剪突触、抵御病原微生物、维持神经系统稳态及促进神经组织的修复再生等起着不可或缺的重要作用,也在多种神经系统疾病,如神经退行性疾病等的发生发展中扮演重要角色。因此,一直以来科研工作者都努力探析关于小胶质细胞发育的多个重要问题,如它们的来源、向CNS迁移与定植的路径、分化与成熟的形态功能改变和微环境调控机理、不同亚类的分布和与神经细胞相互作用的角色机制等。该篇综述将回顾关于小胶质细胞发育研究的历史,总结近来关于小胶质细胞的起源、向CNS的定植、分化与成熟的分子机制及其对CNS重要功能等的研究进展,并讨论今后的重点关注方向。     

小胶质细胞对神经干细胞调控机制的研究进展

脑损伤与神经炎症密切相关,小胶质细胞是这一过程中的关键因素。小胶质细胞可以获得促炎或抗炎的特性,但这如何影响神经干细胞 (NSCs)仍有争议。小胶质细胞在不同的条件下,可以极化为M1型小胶质细胞和M2型小胶质细胞。不同类型的小胶质细胞对NSCs的调控作用不同。但目前关于这方面的研究并未详细阐明具体的作用机制。本文就不同分化类型的小胶质细胞对NSCs调控机制的研究进展进行综述。     

胶质细胞参与神经病理痛的机制

神经病理痛是由于躯体感觉系统的损伤或疾病所引起的疼痛。胶质细胞主要包括中枢神经系统的星形胶质细胞和小胶质细胞,以及外周神经系统的施旺细胞和卫星胶质细胞。胶质细胞在神经受损后被激活,发生形态变化并上调特定蛋白表达,通过与神经元的相互作用,在神经病理痛的初始和维持阶段发挥重要作用。本文综述近年来胶质细胞参与神经病理痛的研究成果。     

Signaling in adult neurogenesis: from stem cell niche to neuronal networks

The mechanisms that determine why neurogenesis is restricted to few regions of the adult brain in mammals, in contrast to its more widespread nature in other vertebrates such as zebrafish, remain to be fully understood. The local environment must provide key signals that instruct stem cell and neurogenic fate, because non-neurogenic progenitors can be instructed towards neurogenesis in this environment. Here, we discuss the recent progress in understanding key factors in the local stem cell niche of the adult mammalian brain, including surprising sources of new signals such as endothelial cells, complement factors and microglia. Moreover, new insights have been gained into how neuronal diversity is instructed in adult neurogenesis, prompting a new view of stem and progenitor cell heterogeneity in the adult mammalian brain.     

小胶质细胞在脑中的生理功能

小胶质细胞是脑中的巨噬细胞,也是脑实质中唯一的一种免疫细胞,因而被看作是中枢神经系统抵御病原入侵的第一道防线。在其他非感染病理状态下,如脑损伤及神经退行性疾病等,小胶质细胞也发挥着保护和毒性损伤的双重作用。相比较其病理功能,人们对小胶质细胞的生理功能长期以来很少关注。然而,近几年关于小胶质细胞生理功能的研究在多个方面都有突破。这些研究结果揭示,小胶质细胞在发育的神经系统中起着调控神经元存活和修饰突触的作用,并且在成熟的健康脑中具有探测和调控神经元活动的功能。将着重对近几年关于小胶质细胞生理功能的相关研究做一综述。     

Abrogated inflammatory response promotes neurogenesis in a murine model of Japanese encephalitis

Background

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) induces neuroinflammation with typical features of viral encephalitis, including inflammatory cell infiltration, activation of microglia, and neuronal degeneration. The detrimental effects of inflammation on neurogenesis have been reported in various models of acute and chronic inflammation. We investigated whether JEV-induced inflammation has similar adverse effects on neurogenesis and whether those effects can be reversed using an anti-inflammatory compound minocycline.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here, using in vitro studies and mouse models, we observed that an acute inflammatory milieu is created in the subventricular neurogenic niche following Japanese encephalitis (JE) and a resultant impairment in neurogenesis occurs, which can be reversed with minocycline treatment. Immunohistological studies showed that proliferating cells were replenished and the population of migrating neuroblasts was restored in the niche following minocycline treatment. In vitro, we checked for the efficacy of minocycline as an anti-inflammatory compound and cytokine bead array showed that production of cyto/chemokines decreased in JEV-activated BV2 cells. Furthermore, mouse neurospheres grown in the conditioned media from JEV-activated microglia exhibit arrest in both proliferation and differentiation of the spheres compared to conditioned media from control microglia. These effects were completely reversed when conditioned media from JEV-activated and minocycline treated microglia was used.

Conclusion/Significance

This study provides conclusive evidence that JEV-activated microglia and the resultant inflammatory molecules are anti-proliferative and anti-neurogenic for NSPCs growth and development, and therefore contribute to the viral neuropathogenesis. The role of minocycline in restoring neurogenesis may implicate enhanced neuronal repair and attenuation of the neuropsychiatric sequelae in JE survivors.     

Analysis of alternative cleavage and polyadenylation in mature and differentiating neurons using RNA-seq data

Background: Most eukaryotic protein-coding genes exhibit alternative cleavage and polyadenylation (APA), resulting in mRNA isoforms with different 3′ untranslated regions (3′ UTRs). Studies have shown that brain cells tend to express long 3′ UTR isoforms using distal cleavage and polyadenylation sites (PASs). Methods: Using our recently developed, comprehensive PAS database PolyA_DB, we developed an efficient method to examine APA, named Significance Analysis of Alternative Polyadenylation using RNA-seq (SAAP-RS). We applied this method to study APA in brain cells and neurogenesis. Results: We found that neurons globally express longer 3′ UTRs than other cell types in brain, and microglia and endothelial cells express substantially shorter 3′ UTRs. We show that the 3′ UTR diversity across brain cells can be corroborated with single cell sequencing data. Further analysis of APA regulation of 3′ UTRs during differentiation of embryonic stem cells into neurons indicates that a large fraction of the APA events regulated in neurogenesis are similarly modulated in myogenesis, but to a much greater extent. Conclusion: Together, our data delineate APA profiles in different brain cells and indicate that APA regulation in neurogenesis is largely an augmented process taking place in other types of cell differentiation.     

Non-cell-autonomous effects of presenilin 1 variants on enrichment-mediated hippocampal progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation

Presenilin 1 (PS1) regulates environmental enrichment (EE)-mediated neural progenitor cell (NPC) proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus. We now report that transgenic mice that ubiquitously express human PS1 variants linked to early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD) neither exhibit EE-induced proliferation, nor neuronal lineage commitment of NPCs. Remarkably, the proliferation and differentiation of cultured NPCs from standard-housed mice expressing wild-type PS1 or PS1 variants are indistinguishable. On the other hand, wild-type NPCs cocultured with primary microglia from mice expressing PS1 variants exhibit impaired proliferation and neuronal lineage commitment, phenotypes that are recapitulated with mutant microglia conditioned media in which we detect altered levels of selected soluble signaling factors. These findings lead us to conclude that factors secreted from microglia play a central role in modulating hippocampal neurogenesis, and argue for non-cell-autonomous mechanisms that govern FAD-linked PS1-mediated impairments in adult hippocampal neurogenesis.     

Functions of microglia in the central nervous system--beyond the immune response

Microglia cells are the immune cells of the central nervous system and consequently play important roles in brain infections and inflammation. Recent in vivo imaging studies have revealed that in the resting healthy brain, microglia are highly dynamic, moving constantly to actively survey the brain parenchyma. These active microglia can rapidly respond to pathological insults, becoming activated to induce a range of effects that may contribute to both pathogenesis, or to confer neuronal protection. However, interactions between microglia and neurons are being recognized as important in shaping neural circuit activity under more normal, physiological conditions. During development and neurogenesis, microglia interactions with neurons help to shape the final patterns of neural circuits important for behavior and with implications for diseases. In the mature brain, microglia can respond to changes in sensory activity and can influence neuronal activity acutely and over the long term. Microglia seem to be particularly involved in monitoring the integrity of synaptic function. In this review, we discuss some of these new insights into the involvement of microglia in neural circuits.     

proNGF Inhibits Neurogenesis and Induces Glial Activation in Adult Mouse Dentate Gyrus

Recent studies have shown that the precursor of nerve growth factor (proNGF) is highly elevated in aging brains and in the brains of patients with Alzheimer’s Disease. proNGF accumulates in hippocampus which is an important neurogenic region related to learning and memory. However, it remains unclear whether proNGF has an influence on hippocampal neurogenesis. In this study, we demonstrated that the high-affinity receptor of proNGF, p75 neurotrophic factor (p75NTR), was expressed both on cells undergoing mitosis and postmitotic mature cells in mouse hippocampus. proNGF infusion into adult mouse hippocampus significantly reduced the density of BrdU-incorporating cells and the density of BrdU/Doublecortin double positive cells in the subgranular zone of hippocampus, indicating an inhibitory effect of proNGF on hippocampal neurogenesis. proNGF infusion also induced prominent cell apoptosis and activated residential astrocyte and microglia, which might further impair the hippocampal neurogenesis. These results implied that proNGF played a pivotal role in regulating the hippocampal neurogenesis and might account for the memory deficit and cognitive impairment.     

Irradiation induces neural precursor-cell dysfunction

In both pediatric and adult patients, cranial radiation therapy causes a debilitating cognitive decline that is poorly understood and currently untreatable. This decline is characterized by hippocampal dysfunction, and seems to involve a radiation-induced decrease in postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis. Here we show that the deficit in neurogenesis reflects alterations in the microenvironment that regulates progenitor-cell fate, as well as a defect in the proliferative capacity of the neural progenitor-cell population. Not only is hippocampal neurogenesis ablated, but the remaining neural precursors adopt glial fates and transplants of non-irradiated neural precursor cells fail to differentiate into neurons in the irradiated hippocampus. The inhibition of neurogenesis is accompanied by marked alterations in the neurogenic microenvironment, including disruption of the microvascular angiogenesis associated with adult neurogenesis and a marked increase in the number and activation status of microglia within the neurogenic zone. These findings provide clear targets for future therapeutic interventions.     

Tubulin cofactor B regulates microtubule densities during microglia transition to the reactive states

Microglia are highly dynamic cells of the CNS that continuously survey the welfare of the neural parenchyma and play key roles modulating neurogenesis and neuronal cell death. In response to injury or pathogen invasion parenchymal microglia transforms into a more active cell that proliferates, migrates and behaves as a macrophage. The acquisition of these extra skills implicates enormous modifications of the microtubule and actin cytoskeletons. Here we show that tubulin cofactor B (TBCB), which has been found to contribute to various aspects of microtubule dynamics in vivo, is also implicated in microglial cytoskeletal changes. We find that TBCB is upregulated in post-lesion reactive parenchymal microglia/macrophages, in interferon treated BV-2 microglial cells, and in neonate amoeboid microglia where the microtubule densities are remarkably low. Our data demonstrate that upon TBCB downregulation both, after microglia differentiation to the ramified phenotype in vivo and in vitro, or after TBCB gene silencing, microtubule densities are restored in these cells. Taken together these observations support the view that TBCB functions as a microtubule density regulator in microglia during activation, and provide an insight into the understanding of the complex mechanisms controlling microtubule reorganization during microglial transition between the amoeboid, ramified, and reactive phenotypes.