From projected species distribution to food‐web structure under climate change

Climate change is inducing deep modifications in species geographic ranges worldwide. However, the consequences of such changes on community structure are still poorly understood, particularly the impacts on food‐web properties. Here, we propose a new framework, coupling species distribution and trophic models, to predict climate change impacts on food‐web structure across the Mediterranean Sea. Sea surface temperature was used to determine the fish climate niches and their future distributions. Body size was used to infer trophic interactions between fish species. Our projections reveal that 54 fish species of 256 endemic and native species included in our analysis would disappear by 2080–2099 from the Mediterranean continental shelf. The number of feeding links between fish species would decrease on 73.4% of the continental shelf. However, the connectance of the overall fish web would increase on average, from 0.26 to 0.29, mainly due to a differential loss rate of feeding links and species richness. This result masks a systematic decrease in predator generality, estimated here as the number of prey species, from 30.0 to 25.4. Therefore, our study highlights large‐scale impacts of climate change on marine food‐web structure with potential deep consequences on ecosystem functioning. However, these impacts will likely be highly heterogeneous in space, challenging our current understanding of climate change impact on local marine ecosystems.     

Increasing southern invasion enhances congruence between endemic and exotic Mediterranean fish fauna

Species movements in relation with global warming may increase the spatial overlap between exotic and endemic species, which is a critical issue for the conservation of biodiversity. The Mediterranean Sea, which is a receptacle for exotic species while being a hotspot for endemism, provides exceptional material for a case study. The aim of our study was to quantify (i) the increasing invasion from southern fish exotic species (Red Sea and Atlantic Ocean) that the Mediterranean biota is experiencing and (ii) the spatial overlap between exotic and endemic Mediterranean fish fauna following the northward movement of exotic species within the Mediterranean Sea in the context of global warming. The historical invasion dynamic of exotic fish species and the sea surface temperature series were reconstructed from 1810 to 2006 in order to estimate the correlation between invasion rate and climate. The geographical distributions of exotic and endemic fish richness before and after the period of global warming were used to assess the dynamic of spatial congruence. The results revealed (i) an acceleration of successful introductions from the Red Sea and (ii) the introduction of Atlantic species from lower latitudes in correlation with the increasing temperature of the Mediterranean Sea. We also showed an increasing overlap between the spatial distributions of endemic and exotic species richness. Taken together, our results suggest that endemic fish species are facing a growing number of exotic species because the Mediterranean Sea is acting as a catchment basin for southern species.     

El Niño,grazers and fisheries interact to greatly elevate extinction risk for Galapagos marine species

Comparisons between historical and recent ecological datasets indicate that shallow reef habitats across the central Galapagos Archipelago underwent major transformation at the time of the severe 1982/1983 El Niño warming event. Heavily grazed reefs with crustose coralline algae (‘urchin barrens’) replaced former macroalgal and coral habitats, resulting in large local and regional declines in biodiversity. Following recent threat assessment workshops, a total of five mammals, six birds, five reptiles, six fishes, one echinoderm, seven corals, six brown algae and nine red algae reported from coastal environments in Galapagos are now recognized as globally threatened. The 2008 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List includes 43 of these species, while two additional species (Galapagos damsel Azurina eupalama and 24‐rayed sunstar Heliaster solaris) not seen for > 25 years also fulfil IUCN threatened species criteria. Two endemic species (Galapagos stringweed Bifurcaria galapagensis and the damselfish A. eupalama) are now regarded as probably extinct, while an additional six macroalgal species (Dictyota galapagensis, Spatoglossum schmittii, Desmarestia tropica, Phycodrina elegans, Gracilaria skottsbergii and Galaxaura barbata) and the seastar H. solaris are possibly extinct. The removal of large lobster and fish predators by artisanal fishing probably magnified impacts of the 1982/1983 El Niño through a cascade of indirect effects involving population expansion of grazing sea urchins. Marine protected areas with adequate enforcement are predicted to ameliorate but not eliminate ecosystem impacts caused by increasing thermal anomalies associated with El Niño and global climate change.     

Projected impacts of climate warming on the functional and phylogenetic components of coastal Mediterranean fish biodiversity

Climate warming affects biodiversity distribution across all ecosystems. However, beyond changes in species richness, impacts on other biodiversity components are still overlooked, particularly in the marine realm. Here we forecasted the potential effect of climate warming on the phylogenetic and functional components of coastal Mediterranean fish biodiversity. To do so, we used species distribution models to project the potential distribution of 230 coastal fish species by the end of the 21st century based on the IPCC A2 scenario implemented with the Mediterranean climatic model NEMOMED8. From these projections, we assessed the changes in phylogenetic (PD) and functional diversity (FD) of fish assemblages at multiple spatial scales using a dated molecular phylogeny and an extensive functional trait database. At the scale of the entire Mediterranean Sea, the projected extinctions of 40 coastal fish species would lead to a concomitant erosion of PD and FD (13.6 and 3%, respectively). However, a null model revealed that species loss at this scale would not lead to a disproportionate erosion of PD and FD. Similar results were found when considering fish assemblages at the grid cell scale. Indeed, at this scale, the projected changes in species richness would lead to unexpected losses of PD and FD for localized and small areas only. A disproportionate erosion of PD under climate warming was only forecasted when analysing fish assemblages at an intermediate spatial scale, namely the Mediterranean marine ecoregions. Overall, our results emphasize the importance of considering multiple spatial scales when assessing potential impacts of climate warming on the multiple components marine biodiversity.     

中国重楼属特有种卷瓣重楼的地理分布特征及濒危状况

卷瓣重楼Paris undulatis H.Li et V.G.Soukup为中国重楼属植物特有种,然而该种从发表至今,关于其是否为峨眉山原产、是否为峨眉山特有、野生种群是否已灭绝等问题仍无定论。本文通过资源调查、分类学鉴定,并结合IUCN的濒危物种分类标准对卷瓣重楼进行了评价,澄清了上述问题。     

Response to De Silva et al. (2007): Endemic freshwater finfish of Asia: distribution and conservation status

De Silva et al . (2007) present an overview of the distribution and conservation status of the endemic freshwater fish of Asia. Within that review they use data from the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ (2006) to conduct an analysis of the conservation status of those endemic fish species. Their analysis is incorrect and provides a very misleading impression of the level of threat to Asian freshwater fish and to freshwater fish at the global scale. The errors stem from a misinterpretation of the data presented on the IUCN Red List. The sources of errors are discussed below and the opportunity is taken to clarify what the information on the IUCN Red List represents.     

Combining projected changes in species richness and composition reveals climate change impacts on coastal Mediterranean fish assemblages

Species Temporal Turnover (STT) is one of the most familiar metrics to assess changes in assemblage composition as a consequence of climate change. However, STT mixes two components in one metric, changes in assemblage composition caused by a process of species loss or gain (i.e. the nestedness component) and changes in assemblage composition caused by a process of species replacement (i.e. the species replacement component). Drawing on previous studies investigating spatial patterns of beta diversity, we propose measures of STT that allow analysing each component (species replacement vs. nestedness), separately. We also present a mapping strategy to simultaneously visualize changes in species richness and assemblage composition. To illustrate our approach, we used the Mediterranean coastal fish fauna as a case study. Using Bioclimatic Envelope Models (BEMs) we first projected the potential future climatic niches of 288 coastal Mediterranean fish species based on a global warming scenario. We then aggregated geographically the species‐level projections to analyse the projected changes in species richness and composition. Our results show that projected changes in assemblage composition are caused by different processes (species replacement vs. nestedness) in several areas of the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, our mapping strategy highlights that the coastal fish fauna in several regions of the Mediterranean Sea could experience a ‘cul‐de‐sac’ effect if exposed to climate warming. Overall, the joint exploration of changes in species richness and composition coupled with the distinction between species replacement and nestedness bears important information for understanding the nature of climate change impacts on biodiversity. These methodological advances should help decision‐makers in prioritizing action in the areas facing the greatest vulnerability to climate.     

Warning times for species extinctions due to climate change

Climate change is likely to become an increasingly major obstacle to slowing the rate of species extinctions. Several new assessment approaches have been proposed for identifying climate‐vulnerable species, based on the assumption that established systems such as the IUCN Red List need revising or replacing because they were not developed to explicitly consider climate change. However, no assessment approach has been tested to determine its ability to provide advanced warning time for conservation action for species that might go extinct due to climate change. To test the performance of the Red List system in this capacity, we used linked niche‐demographic models with habitat dynamics driven by a ‘business‐as‐usual’ climate change scenario. We generated replicate 100‐year trajectories for range‐restricted reptiles and amphibians endemic to the United States. For each replicate, we categorized the simulated species according to IUCN Red List criteria at annual, 5‐year, and 10‐year intervals (the latter representing current practice). For replicates that went extinct, we calculated warning time as the number of years the simulated species was continuously listed in a threatened category prior to extinction. To simulate data limitations, we repeated the analysis using a single criterion at a time (disregarding other listing criteria). Results show that when all criteria can be used, the Red List system would provide several decades of warning time (median = 62 years; >20 years for 99% of replicates), but suggest that conservation actions should begin as soon as a species is listed as Vulnerable, because 50% of replicates went extinct within 20 years of becoming uplisted to Critically Endangered. When only one criterion was used, warning times were substantially shorter, but more frequent assessments increased the warning time by about a decade. Overall, we found that the Red List criteria reliably provide a sensitive and precautionary way to assess extinction risk under climate change.     

Have fishes had their chips? The dilemma of threatened fishes

Synopsis The conservation status and factors threatening fishes worldwide are reviewed in order to introduce a series of one-page articles on Threatened fishes of the world, and to encourage the incorporation of information on threatened fishes into international conservation programmes. Information on fish extinction and threat rates are compared with those of other animal groups, and the unique characteristics of fish conservation problems are highlighted. At present 979 species of fishes are listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List and at least 36 species and three subspecies are listed as recently extinct. It is argued that these figures are probably gross underestimates and that they may mislead conservation authorities and resource users about the seriousness of the situation. Freshwater fishes may be the most threatened group of vertebrates after the Amphibia. Urgent action is required to save many narrowly endemic, stenotopic species from extinction, especially in Africa, Asia and South America. The conservation of common species that drive essential ecological processes is also important. Anthropogenic pressures, especially habitat degradation, the introduction of invasive species and pollution, on inland and coastal waters are particularly severe and many major fish communities are threatened with elimination throughout the world. The conservation of marine fishes is complicated by the fact that it is difficult to ascertain their rarity. The importance of the retention of genetic variation is highlighted, and both orthodox and innovative conservation measures are encouraged. Further research on minimum viable populations, genetics, and the factors that cause fishes to become vulnerable to extinction, is urgently required.Invited editorial     

通过红色名录评估研究中国内陆鱼类受威胁现状及其成因

根据已有的基础资料, 采用IUCN评估等级和标准, 对中国目前已鉴定的1,443种内陆鱼类受威胁现状进行了评估。评估结果显示, 1,443种内陆鱼类中, 灭绝3种、区域灭绝1种、极危65种、濒危101种、易危129种、近危101种、无危454种和数据缺乏589种。同已有的IUCN评估结果相比, 本次被评估的物种数目多, 受威胁物种大幅度增加, 其数目达295种, 占已知中国内陆鱼类总数的20.44%, 低于全球平均值(29%)。属于灭绝等级的鱼类是大鳞白鱼(Anabarilius macrolepis)、异龙鲤(Cyprinus yilongensis)和茶卡高原鳅(Triplophysa cakaensis); 属于区域灭绝等级的鱼类是长颌北鲑(Stenodus nelma)。鲤科是受威胁物种数最多的科, 其中裂腹鱼亚科和鲤亚科的种类受威胁程度最高。长江上游和珠江上游受威胁物种最多, 是受威胁最严重的地区。中国内陆鱼类受威胁的主要因素为河流筑坝、生境退化或丧失、酷渔滥捕和引进外来种。列入数据缺乏等级的鱼类较多, 占中国内陆鱼类的40.82%, 表明对中国内陆鱼类物种多样性了解不充分, 需要加强野外调查以积累基础资料。     

Benthic species of the Kerguelen Plateau show contrasting distribution shifts in response to environmental changes

Marine life of the Southern Ocean has been facing environmental changes and the direct impact of human activities during the past decades. Benthic communities have particularly been affected by such changes although we only slowly understand the effect of environmental changes on species physiology, biogeography, and distribution. Species distribution models (SDM) can help explore species geographic responses to main environmental changes. In this work, we modeled the distribution of four echinoid species with contrasting ecological niches. Models developed for [2005–2012] were projected to different time periods, and the magnitude of distribution range shifts was assessed for recent‐past conditions [1955–1974] and for the future, under scenario RCP 8.5 for [2050–2099]. Our results suggest that species distribution shifts are expected to be more important in a near future compared to the past. The geographic response of species may vary between poleward shift, latitudinal reduction, and local extinction. Species with broad ecological niches and not limited by biogeographic barriers would be the least affected by environmental changes, in contrast to endemic species, restricted to coastal areas, which are predicted to be more sensitive.     

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: an assessment of coral reef fishes in the US Pacific Islands

Widespread declines among many coral reef fisheries have led scientists and managers to become increasingly concerned over the extinction risk facing some species. To aid in assessing the extinction risks facing coral reef fishes, large-scale censuses of the abundance and distribution of individual species are critically important. We use fisheries-independent data collected as part of the NOAA Pacific Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program from 2000 to 2009 to describe the range and density across the US Pacific of coral reef fishes included on The International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN) 2011 Red List of Threatened Species. Forty-five species, including sharks, rays, groupers, humphead wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), and bumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), included on the IUCN List, were recorded in the US Pacific Islands. Most species were generally rare in the US Pacific with the exception of a few species, principally small groupers and reef sharks. The greatest diversity and densities of IUCN-listed fishes were recorded at remote and uninhabited islands of the Pacific Remote Island Areas; in general, lower densities were observed at reefs of inhabited islands. Our findings complement IUCN assessment efforts, emphasize the efficacy of large-scale assessment and monitoring efforts in providing quantitative data on reef fish assemblages, and highlight the importance of protecting populations at remote and uninhabited islands where some species included on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species can be observed in abundance.     

BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH: Geographical linkages between threats and imperilment in freshwater fish in the Mediterranean Basin

Aim The level of imperilment of mediterranean freshwater fish is among the highest recorded for any group of organisms evaluated to date. Here, we describe the geographical patterns in the incidence of threats affecting mediterranean freshwater fish and test whether the effects of specific threats are spatially related to the degree of imperilment of fish faunas. Location The Mediterranean Basin Biome. Methods From the IUCN Red List, we recorded the six main threats to 232 endemic freshwater fish species. We used data on fish distributions from IUCN to characterize the spatial patterns in the incidence of threats (as percentage of species affected) through multivariate statistics. We studied the relationships between threat incidence and two estimators of imperilment (proportion of species threatened and an index of extinction risk) at two spatial scales (10 × 10 km and basins) using partial least squares regressions (PLSR) that incorporated the effects of species richness and mean range size. Results The main axis of variation in the incidence of threats to freshwater fish split areas mainly affected by invasive species from those areas where species are threatened by pollution and agriculture. Wherever invasive species and water extraction were predominant threats, fish assemblages consistently tended to be more imperilled. Main conclusions As far as we know, this is the first large‐scale analysis on the spatial relationships between the incidence of threats and level of imperilment of any taxonomic group. Our results highlight the primary role of invasive species and water extraction as drivers of native fish declines in the Mediterranean Basin. Large‐scale patterns described here should be generated by local‐scale impacts of both threats on fish biodiversity, widely reported in Mediterranean areas. Because all the species under concern are endemic, control of invasive species and reducing overexploitation of freshwater resources should be conservation priorities for mediterranean freshwater systems.     

通过红色名录评估研究中国哺乳动物受威胁现状及其原因

依据中国哺乳类野生种群与生境现状, 我们利用IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria (Version 3.1), Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria和Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional and National Levels (Version 4.0), 评价了中国所有已知的673种哺乳动物的濒危状况。本次评估了71种《IUCN濒危物种红色名录(2015)》没有评估的哺乳动物, 还评估了60种《IUCN濒危物种红色名录(2015)》误认为中国没有分布的哺乳动物。发现中国有3种哺乳动物“野外灭绝”, 3种“区域灭绝”。受威胁中国哺乳动物共计178种, 约占评估物种总数的26.4%, 高于IUCN濒危物种红色名录的物种平均受威胁率(21.8%)。中国哺乳动物1/4的特有种属于受威胁物种。受威胁比例最高的目是灵长目、食肉目与鲸偶蹄目。多数省区的受威胁哺乳动物物种占本省区哺乳动物总数的20-30%。中国哺乳动物种类多分布在中国第二级地理阶梯。生活在高海拔地区的哺乳动物虽然种类少, 但是受威胁哺乳动物的种类比例高。过度利用、生境丧失和人类干扰名列受威胁哺乳动物致危因子的前3位。自从1989年《中华人民共和国野生动物保护法》实施以来, 一些中国濒危哺乳动物的生存状况得到了改善。然而, 鉴于中国哺乳动物区系的独特性和多样性, 以及中国地形地貌的复杂性, 如何拯救这些濒危物种仍是中国生物多样性保护的一项艰巨任务。     

Large‐scale distribution of tuna species in a warming ocean

Tuna are globally distributed species of major commercial importance and some tuna species are a major source of protein in many countries. Tuna are characterized by dynamic distribution patterns that respond to climate variability and long‐term change. Here, we investigated the effect of environmental conditions on the worldwide distribution and relative abundance of six tuna species between 1958 and 2004 and estimated the expected end‐of‐the‐century changes based on a high‐greenhouse gas concentration scenario (RCP8.5). We created species distribution models using a long‐term Japanese longline fishery dataset and two‐step generalized additive models. Over the historical period, suitable habitats shifted poleward for 20 out of 22 tuna stocks, based on their gravity centre (GC) and/or one of their distribution limits. On average, tuna habitat distribution limits have shifted poleward 6.5 km per decade in the northern hemisphere and 5.5 km per decade in the southern hemisphere. Larger tuna distribution shifts and changes in abundance are expected in the future, especially by the end‐of‐the‐century (2080–2099). Temperate tunas (albacore, Atlantic bluefin, and southern bluefin) and the tropical bigeye tuna are expected to decline in the tropics and shift poleward. In contrast, skipjack and yellowfin tunas are projected to become more abundant in tropical areas as well as in most coastal countries' exclusive economic zones (EEZ). These results provide global information on the potential effects of climate change in tuna populations and can assist countries seeking to minimize these effects via adaptive management.     

Vulnerability of terrestrial island vertebrates to projected sea‐level rise

Sea‐level rise (SLR) from global warming may have severe consequences for biodiversity; however, a baseline, broad‐scale assessment of the potential consequences of SLR for island biodiversity is lacking. Here, we quantify area loss for over 12 900 islands and over 3000 terrestrial vertebrates in the Pacific and Southeast Asia under three different SLR scenarios (1 m, 3 m and 6 m). We used very fine‐grained elevation information, which offered >100 times greater spatial detail than previous analyses and allowed us to evaluate thousands of hitherto not assessed small islands. Depending on the SLR scenario, we estimate that 15–62% of islands in our study region will be completely inundated and 19–24% will lose 50–99% of their area. Overall, we project that between 1% and 9% of the total island area in our study region may be lost. We find that Pacific species are 2–3 times more vulnerable than those in the Indomalayan or Australasian region and risk losing 4–22% of range area (1–6 m SLR). Species already listed as threatened by IUCN are particularly vulnerable compared with non‐threatened species. Under a simple area loss–species loss proportionality assumption, we estimate that 37 island group endemic species in this region risk complete inundation of their current global distribution in the 1 m SLR scenario that is widely anticipated for this century (and 118 species under 3 m SLR). Our analysis provides a first, broad‐scale estimate of the potential consequences of SLR for island biodiversity and our findings confirm that islands are extremely vulnerable to sea‐level rise even within this century.     

Patterns and Variability of Projected Bioclimatic Habitat for Pinus albicaulis in the Greater Yellowstone Area

Projected climate change at a regional level is expected to shift vegetation habitat distributions over the next century. For the sub-alpine species whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis), warming temperatures may indirectly result in loss of suitable bioclimatic habitat, reducing its distribution within its historic range. This research focuses on understanding the patterns of spatiotemporal variability for future projected P.albicaulis suitable habitat in the Greater Yellowstone Area (GYA) through a bioclimatic envelope approach. Since intermodel variability from General Circulation Models (GCMs) lead to differing predictions regarding the magnitude and direction of modeled suitable habitat area, nine bias-corrected statistically down-scaled GCMs were utilized to understand the uncertainty associated with modeled projections. P.albicaulis was modeled using a Random Forests algorithm for the 1980–2010 climate period and showed strong presence/absence separations by summer maximum temperatures and springtime snowpack. Patterns of projected habitat change by the end of the century suggested a constant decrease in suitable climate area from the 2010 baseline for both Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 8.5 and 4.5 climate forcing scenarios. Percent suitable climate area estimates ranged from 2–29% and 0.04–10% by 2099 for RCP 8.5 and 4.5 respectively. Habitat projections between GCMs displayed a decrease of variability over the 2010–2099 time period related to consistent warming above the 1910–2010 temperature normal after 2070 for all GCMs. A decreasing pattern of projected P.albicaulis suitable habitat area change was consistent across GCMs, despite strong differences in magnitude. Future ecological research in species distribution modeling should consider a full suite of GCM projections in the analysis to reduce extreme range contractions/expansions predictions. The results suggest that restoration strageties such as planting of seedlings and controlling competing vegetation may be necessary to maintain P.albicaulis in the GYA under the more extreme future climate scenarios.     

关于IUCN红色名录类型和标准新的修改

在对1994年的《红色名录类型（版本2．3）》修改补充的基础上,《IUCN红色名录类型和标准（版本3．1）》于2001年由IUCN正式出版。修改的内容主要反映在类型等级系统的变动和等级划分标准的变化上。对于种群缩减不仅重视对过去的分析,而且要求推断或预测今后和任何时候的变化;同时,着重对缩减原因的分析,究竟是可以逆转的、被了解的和停止的或相反。     

关于物种濒危等级标准之探讨--对IUCN物种濒危等级的思考

为了保存地球上的生物多样性,我们需要根据物种的种群数量与分布、种群数量波动与分布区下降速率来评定濒危物种的濒危等级,并针对物种的濒危等级提出具体的保护措施。1994年11月,IUCN第40次理事会会议正式通过了经过修订的Mace-Lande物种濒危等级标准作为IUCN物种濒危等级标准。IUCN濒危物种红色名录虽然不是国际法和国家法律,但是对于政府间组织、非政府组织的保护决策以及各国的自然法律法规的制定有着深远的影响,在保护生物学理论研究中也发挥了一定作用。我们在研究制定中国水生野生生物濒危等级标准时发现,如果直接应用IUCN物种濒危等级标准评定水生野生生物濒危等级将存在一些问题。如：(1)如何区别对待那些本来就数量稀少、分布区狭窄的物种和那些由于人类活动而导致其种群数量与生境面积急剧下降的物种?(2)不同的动物类群能否应用同一濒危标准尺度?(3)如何区别对待物种边缘分布区和核心分布区的种群数量与密度的差异?(4)如何处理种群的局部灭绝、局部濒危?(5)一些濒危物种在野生环境中濒危,但是这些物种可以人工繁殖,如何处理可以人工繁殖的濒危物种?(6)如果没有种群与栖息地的精确历史资料和统计数据,怎样应用物种的濒危标准评估其濒危等级?在实践中,我们针对这些问题提出了解决方案。考虑与国际流行的IUCN物种濒危等级标准接轨,我们提出来一个由“无危”、“值得关注”、“受胁”、“濒危”和“灭绝”等5个级构成的濒危等级系统,其中“值得关注”、“受胁”、“濒危”又分为“一般”与“高度”两个亚等级。我们提出应区分“生态濒危物种”、“进化濒危物种”;对于不同生物类群,应区分物种的生活史对策,制定不同生活史物种的濒危标准。对于r-对策物种,引入“经济灭绝”这一等级,将这一等级对应于“受胁”等级,以解决缺少物种数量的统计数据和历史数据这一难题;区别对待特有物种,将其濒危等级提升一等;引进集合种群(metapopulation)概念,将集合种群的局域种群(local population)作为“个体”对待。     

IUCN Red List assessment of the Cape Verde endemic flora: towards a global strategy for plant conservation in Macaronesia

We review the conservation status and threats to the endemic vascular flora of the Cape Verde islands, mostly based on the past two decades of collecting, literature review and herbarium specimens. The application of IUCN Red List criteria and categories using RAMAS software reveals that 78% of the endemic plants are threatened (29.3% Critically Endangered, 41.3% Endangered, 7.6% Vulnerable). Most of these endemics have a limited geographical range, and half of them have Areas of Occupancy and Extents of Occurrence of < 20 and 200 km², respectively. Our data show that, over the last two decades, the Cape Verde vascular plants have become more threatened and their conservation status has declined, mostly as a consequence of the increase in exotic species, habitat degradation and human disturbance. This paper presents the first comprehensive IUCN Red List data review for the plants endemic to Cape Verde, thus providing an important step towards the recognition and conservation of its threatened endemic flora at the national and global level. It also fills a knowledge gap, as it represents the first thorough assessment of the conservation status of the entire endemic flora of a Macaronesian archipelago.