Phylogeny and biogeography of Carminator (Hymenoptera: Megalyridae)

Carminator Shaw is a small genus of parasitic wasps that is mainly distributed in Southeast Asia. Eight species are recognized here, including Carminator coronatus sp.n. and Carminator gracilis sp.n. A data set comprising 54 morphological characters and including all the known species of Carminator, as well as four out‐group taxa (two Cryptalyra spp., one Ettchellsia sp. and one Megalyra sp.), was assembled and analysed. Carminator is retrieved as monophyletic. All weighted analyses place Carminator affinis as the sister group to the rest of the genus. A northern clade comprising species occurring on the Japanese Isles, Taiwan and Vietnam (Carminator japonicus (Carminator gracilis sp.n. (Carminator cavus + Carminator helios))) is strongly supported and nested inside the more southerly distributed species. C. helios is found on Nakanoshima Island, which emerged post‐Pliocene, and so C. helios is considered to have dispersed there via a land‐bridge connection from the Ryukyu Islands. A key to all known species of Carminator is provided.     

Polymorphic microsatellite loci in the parasitic wasp Cotesia glomerata (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

Five polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated in a gregarious endoparasitoid, Cotesia glomerata, using an enrichment protocol. We detected two to 15 alleles per locus in a sample of 50 female wasps collected from a field population near Zürich, Switzerland. The observed heterozygosities ranged from 0.21 to 0.92. These markers are currently being used in our studies of sex determination in this species.     

Phylogenetic revision of the parasitoid wasp family Trigonalidae (Hymenoptera)

A phylogenetic analysis of generic relationships and revised generic concepts for the Trigonalidae is presented. The Trigonalidae is divided into two subfamilies, the Orthogonalinae and the Trigonalinae. Orthogonalinae consists of a single primitive genus, Orthogonalys, sharing many generalized apocritan characters, but lacking advanced trigonalid characters including antennal tyloids and female metasomal armature. No synapomorphies have been detected for the Orthogonalinae. Trigonalinae are characterized by the presence of tyloids. The Trigonalinae were originally defined by the absence of female armature, and were therefore polyphyletic because armature has been lost several times. Within the revised concept of Trigonalinae, the tribe Trigonalini is characterized by the presence of elongate parameres and an intertorulus distance subequal to the distance between the torulus and the eye. A second tribe, Nomadinini, is based on the secondary loss of tyloids, and comprises the previous subfamilies Seminotinae, Nomadininae, Bareogonalinae and Lycogastrinae. The two tribes Trigonalini and Nomadinini share the presence of female armature, although in some Trigonalini it has been secondarily lost. The genera Labidogonalos Schulz, Lycogastroides Strand, Lycogonalos Bischoff, Nanogonalos Schulz, Poecilogonalos Schulz and Taiwanogonalos Tsuneki are synonymised under Taeniogonalos Schulz. The species Lycogaster zimmeri Bischoff, Tapinogonalos maschuna Schulz, and Trigonalys pictifrons Smith (placed in Lycogaster by Schulz, 1906a) are transferred to Taeniogonalos. The genera Discenea Enderlein and Stygnogonalos Schulz are synonymised under Trigonalys Westwood. The species Labidogonalos flavescens Bischoff, L. sanctaecatharinae Schulz, Trigonalys lachrymosa Westwood (placed in Lycogaster by Bischoff, 1938), T. maculifrons Cameron (placed in Labidogonalos by Bischoff, 1938) and T. rufiventris Magretti (placed in Lycogaster by Schulz, 1907a) are transferred to Trigonalys.Trigonalys costalis Cresson is synonymised with Taeniogonalos gundlachii (Cresson). Xanthogonalos fasciatus Bertoni and X.severini Schulz are synonymised with Trigonalys sanctaecatharinae (Schulz). Mimelogonalos partiglabra Riek and M. punctulata Riek are synonymised with M. bouvieri Schulz. Lectotypes are designated for Trigonalys melanoleuca Westwood and Taeniogonalos fasciatipennis (Cameron). The author of Trigonalys maculifrons is Sharp (1895), not Cameron (1897), and the author of Taeniogonalos enderleini is De Santis (1980), not Schulz 1906. Viereck (1914) designated Trigonalys pulchella Cresson as type of the genus Tapinogonalos Schulz, preceding Bischoff's (1938) designation, making Tapinogonalos a synonym of Orthogonalys. A new genus, Afrigonalys, is proposed for the three species that were described in ‘Tapinogonalos’sensu Bischoff, nec Viereck.     

Phylogeny of the parasitic wasp subfamily Charipinae (Hymenoptera, Cynipoidea, Figitidae)

The Charipinae are a major group of hyperparasitoids of Hemiptera. Here, we present the first cladistic analysis of this subfamily's internal relationships, based on 96 morphological characters of adults. The data matrix was analysed using uniformly weighted parsimony. The effects of using alternative weighting schemes were explored by performing additional searches employing implied weights criteria. One of the caveats of implied weights analysis is that it lacks an objective criterion for selecting the value of the concavity function. In the present study, differential weighting was used to explore the sensitivity of our results to the alternative assumptions made in the analysis and to select one of the most parsimonious trees under equal weights, which we regard as being the hypothesis that minimizes the amount of ad hoc assumptions. The validity of the two existing tribes and the monophyly of all the genera of Charipinae were tested, in particular the cosmopolitan and highly species-rich Alloxysta and Phaenoglyphis , which appear repeatedly in ecological and biochemical studies of host–parasitoid associations. The evolution of several major characters and the relationships between genera are discussed. On the basis of the phylogenetic results, we discuss a number of taxonomic issues. A new classification of the subfamily is proposed in which no tribes are maintained, Carvercharips is synonymyzed with Alloxysta , and the creation of a new genus from Nepal is justified. Our analysis points to the need for a world revision of the basal genus Phaenoglyphis , which is shown as paraphyletic.     

Phylogeny and historical biogeography of the cynipoid wasp family Ibaliidae (Hymenoptera)

The Ibaliidae are a small family of cynipoid wasps, the members of which parasitize woodboring siricid larvae in hardwoods and conifers. The 19 currently recognized extant species occur mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. No fossils are known despite the presumed old age of the family. We present a cladistic analysis of ibaliid relationships at the species-level, mainly based on external skeletal characters of adults. The results indicate that the three genera ( Eileenella , Heteribalia , Ibalia ) and two subgenera of Ibalia ( Ibalia s. str. and Tremibalia ) recognized in the current classification are monophyletic. Three different categories of characters were compared for their phylogenetic usefulness. Homoplasy was found to be lowest for main structures, higher for sculptural characters, and still higher for colour differences. The historical biogeography of the family was reconstructed using dispersal–vicariance analysis in combination with palaeogeographical data. The results suggest that the family primarily diversified within the eastern Palaearctic–northern Oriental region. The nominate subgenus of Ibalia dispersed early to the western Nearctic, where it radiated; two species later spread throughout the Holarctic. The other subgenus of Ibalia shows an early eastern Palaearctic–eastern Nearctic disjunction which presumably dates back to the Eocene–Oligocene transition.     

Nine polymorphic microsatellite loci for the parasitic wasp Neotypus melanocephalus (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae)

Nine polymorphic microsatellite loci were isolated from Neotypus melanocephalus (Gmelin), a parasitoid of the parasitic large blue butterfly Maculinea nausithous. Allelic diversity and heterozygosity were quantified in samples from the Upper Rhine valley in Southwest Germany.     

Species-diagnostic single-nucleotide polymorphism and sequence-tagged site markers for the parasitic wasp genus Nasonia (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

Wasps of the genus Nasonia are important biological control agents of house flies and related filth flies, which are major vectors of human pathogens. Species of Nasonia (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) are not easily differentiated from one another by morphological characters, and molecular markers for their reliable identification have been missing so far. Here, we report eight single-nucleotide polymorphism and three sequence-tagged site markers derived from expressed sequenced tag libraries for the two closely related and regionally sympatric species N. giraulti and N. vitripennis. We studied variation of these markers in natural populations of the two species, and we mapped them in the Nasonia genome. The markers are species-diagnostic and evenly spread over all five chromosomes. They are ideal for rapid species identification and hybrid recognition, and they can be used to map economically relevant quantitative trait loci in the Nasonia genome.     

Body temperature of the parasitic wasp Pimpla turionellae (Hymenoptera) during host location by vibrational sounding

Abstract.  The pupal parasitoid Pimpla turionellae (L.) uses self-produced vibrations transmitted on the plant substrate, so-called vibrational sounding, to locate immobile concealed pupal hosts. The wasps are able to use vibrational sounding reliably over a broad range of ambient temperatures and even show an increased signal frequency and intensity at low temperatures. The present study investigates how control of body temperature in the wasps by endothermic mechanisms may facilitate host location under changing thermal environments. Insect body temperature is measured with real-time IR thermography on plant-stem models at temperature treatments of 10, 18, 26 and 30 °C, whereas behaviour is recorded with respect to vibrational host location. The results reveal a low-level endothermy that likely interferes with vibrational sound production because it occurs only in nonsearching females. At the lowest temperature of 10 °C, the thoracic temperature is 1.15 °C warmer than the ambient surface temperature whereas, at the high temperatures of 26 and 30 ° C, the wasps cool down their thorax by 0.29 and 0.47 °C, respectively, and their head by 0.45 and 0.61 °C below ambient surface temperature. By contrast, regardless of ambient temperature, searching females always have a slightly elevated body temperature of at most 0.30 °C above the ambient surface temperature. Behavioural observations indicate that searching females interrupt host location more frequently at suboptimal temperatures, presumably due to the requirements of thermoregulation. It is assumed that both mechanisms, producing vibrations for host location and low-level endothermy, are located in the thorax. Endothermy by thoracic muscle work probably disturbs signal structure of vibrational sounding, so the processes cannot be used at the same time.     

Seasonal variation in the reproductive strategy of the parasitic wasp Eulophus larvarum (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Eulophidae)

ABSTRACT. 1. Eulophus larvarum (L.) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is a gregarious parasitoid of lepidopterous larvae feeding on broad-leaved trees. Normally there are two generations a year.
2. Sex ratio in the spring generation of larvae is female biased. The bias is probably due to local mate competition as progeny from one brood emerge from their pupae in close proximity to each other.
3. Sex ratio in the summer generation of larvae is near equality. Local mate competition is absent as individuals from the same brood become separated during the winter.
4. Variation in sex-ratio in the spring generation is consistent with a binomial model. Variation in sex ratio in the summer generation is much greater than expected from a binomial model and there is a large proportion of single-sex broods.
5. Two hypotheses are put forward to explain the summer generation pattern: virgin oviposition, and strong intersexual competition.
6. No differences in clutch size were found between the two generations.     

A new rod-shaped virus from parasitic wasp Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

A new rod-shaped nucleocapsids (NCs) was found inadvertently in Diachasmimorpha longicaudata accessory gland filaments (AGFs). The NCs were 30 nm in diameter and nearly 900 nm in length. They replicated in a small cell type of the AGFs in D. longicaudata, and following oviposition, invaded and proliferated in the hemocytes of a parasitized host Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel. This finding of a completely new virus in the AGF indicate that different geographical populations (subspecies) of D. longicaudata may carry different sybionts. This is the first report showing that the same wasp species, but from a different geographical populations, can carry an entirely different virus.     

Past and present distribution of stoneworts (Characeae) in The Netherlands

Across the world there is a prevailing view that freshwater algae are cosmopolitan. The notion has seldom been tested and is unlikely to be true in genetic terms. Nonetheless, some morphospecies of several groups of algae do have a worldwide distribution. Others have restricted distributions and may be regarded as endemic to a region. However there is always the possibility that they will be discovered in far away places. Australia has a rather large element of endemicity in its algal flora. From the early days of Australian phycology many new genera and species of freshwater algae have been described. Some are of such distinctive appearance or novelty as to be regarded as ‘flagship’ taxa. There is little doubt about their endemicity and their existence increases the probability of less-distinguished species also being endemic. The degree of endemicity is probably masked by the ‘force-fitting’ of European names to Australian species. Some Australian endemics are robust and are widely distributed in a variety of types of water body. Others, the frail endemics, the ones of greatest novelty and phylogenetic significance, have a very restricted range with their strongholds in dystrophic coastal lagoons where tracts or remnant patches of native vegetation survive. Their survival and the conservation of their biodiversity depends on recognition of the significance of coastal lagoons and swamps.     

Host selection by virgin and inseminated females of the parasitic wasp, Dinarmus basalis (Pteromalidae, Hymenoptera)

1. Fitness is related to reproduction and survival. There apparently exists a negative correlation between the numbers of male and female offspring. There also exists a trade-off between survival and reproduction. This paper investigates optimal decisions with the reproduction and survival trade-off in host selection by wasps.
2. Whereas inseminated female wasps could manipulate the sex of their offspring, virgin females produced only male offspring. I surveyed behavioural differences and the consequences of oviposition by inseminated and virgin females of a solitary parasitic wasp in host choice situations.
3. Two host types were available at the same time to both inseminated and virgin female wasps: one (a 17-day-old host in one bean) presenting difficulties for the laying of eggs, but more benefits for the offspring and the other (five 12- or 13-day-old hosts in one bean) easier for the female wasp for laying of eggs but less beneficial for the offspring.
4. Inseminated female wasps chose more 17-day-old hosts than 12-day-old hosts, but more 13-day-old hosts than 17-day-old hosts in each pair-wise choice. Virgin females chose the smaller hosts in both situations.
5. Virgin females, having greater longevity than inseminated females, laid larger numbers of eggs than the inseminated females during their lifetime by adopting an energy-saving host choice that had little effect on male offspring fitness.     

Comparative courtship behaviour in two species of the parasitic chalcid wasp Melittobia (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae)

Timing and form of courtship behaviour elements constitute a major isolating mechanism for two morphologically and ecologically similar parasitic wasps. Because males are blind, the complex courtship of Melittobia chalybii and a new as yet undescribed species previously confused with it, designated as M. sp. A, depends upon tactile and chemical cues. In both species, after the female orients to the male's abdomen, the male turns in the direction of contact and mounts. However, chalybii males antennate females continuously, lifting mesothoracic legs at regular intervals, while in sp. A male antennation alternates with metathoracic leg pumping. Courtship and copulation duration are greater in Chalybii than in sp. A.     

Relationships among the tiphiid wasp subfamilies (Hymenoptera)

Abstract. The phylogenetic relationships among the subfamilies of Tiphiidae are discussed, with detailed analysis of characters, and presentation of a phylogenetic tree. The tribe Diammini Turner is elevated to subfamily status. A key to the subfamilies is included, and a brief synopsis of each subfamily is given.     

Diurnal rhythm of emergence from pupae in parasitic wasp Trichogramma evanescens Westw. (Insecta: Hymenoptera)

Abstract

Pupal eclosion of Trichogramma evanescens Westw. was studied in different conditions of light‐darkness and temperature fluctuations. The results revealed that under natural light cycles Trichogramma exhibits a distinct rhythm of emergence from pupae. Maximum emergence takes place in the morning. This rhythm persists in constant dim red light and temperature, so it is endogenous in nature. The rhythm can be entrained by artificial 24‐h temperature cycles or by day‐night cycles of light with a very low intensity of illumination (<0.01 lux). Nevertheless a single pulse of bright light or of high temperature is not able to reset the rhythm. The emergence rhythm was also absent if the culture was grown in constant darkness and temperature.     

Silver staining of nucleolar organizer regions (NOR) in some species of Hymenoptera (bees and parasitic wasp) and Coleoptera (lady-beetle)

Adaptations of the nucleolar organizer regions (NOR) banding technique using precipitation of silver salts significantly improved the NOR characterization of some species of hymenopterans and one coleopteran. The bee Melipona marginata (2n = 18) showed one metacentric pair of chromosomes with a NOR in the pericentromeric position. The parasitic wasp Mellitobia australica (2n = 12) also showed one metacentric pair with a strongly Ag-positive NOR. The male lady-beetle Cycloneda sanguinea (2n = 18 + Xy(p)) displayed a NOR on a pair of acrocentric autosomes. In the male Euglossa sp. (a haplodiploid species) (n = 21) the NOR were multiple, and occurred in five chromosomes. In the bee Plebeia sp. 1 (2n = 34) the NOR seemed restricted to one of the homologues of a metacentric pair. The systematic advances brought out by using this technique in the context of current theories of karyotypic evolution of these taxa are described and discussed.     

Altitudinal distribution and body resource allocation in a high mountain social wasp (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)

Jame's rule proposes a direct relationship between body size and altitude. There are several studies about this rule; however, few studies analyze proportional changes in body parts along gradients. The morphological variation of Agelaia pallipes (Olivier) in five sites along an altitudinal gradient (2600-3380 m) in the Santuario de Iguaque, Colombia, were studied in order to test whether or not the species follows Jame's rule, and whether body parts follow a homogeneous variation. Body variation analysis was conducted through multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and the relationship between altitude and each morphometric measurement was studied through regression analyses. The MANOVA indicated significant differences among sites. An increase in altitude leads to a reduction in body size, especially in hind femur length and head width. However, measurements linked to flight such as mesosoma height, mesoscutum width, and fore wing size showed a reverse tendency. Possibly all described changes are consequence of both reduction on food availability and lower atmospheric pressure. The low temperature of high areas may strongly limit foraging and thus food availability. Lower atmospheric pressure reduces flight potential and may result in an increase in size of both wings and flight muscles. This paper underscores the need to study in detail the changes in body proportions in species with wide distribution ranges in latitude and altitude.