Forest edges have high conservation value for bird communities in mosaic landscapes

A major conservation challenge in mosaic landscapes is to understand how trait‐specific responses to habitat edges affect bird communities, including potential cascading effects on bird functions providing ecosystem services to forests, such as pest control. Here, we examined how bird species richness, abundance and community composition varied from interior forest habitats and their edges into adjacent open habitats, within a multi‐regional sampling scheme. We further analyzed variations in Conservation Value Index (CVI), Community Specialization Index (CSI) and functional traits across the forest‐edge‐open habitat gradient. Bird species richness, total abundance and CVI were significantly higher at forest edges while CSI peaked at interior open habitats, i.e., furthest from forest edge. In addition, there were important variations in trait‐ and species‐specific responses to forest edges among bird communities. Positive responses to forest edges were found for several forest bird species with unfavorable conservation status. These species were in general insectivores, understorey gleaners, cavity nesters and long‐distance migrants, all traits that displayed higher abundance at forest edges than in forest interiors or adjacent open habitats. Furthermore, consistently with predictions, negative edge effects were recorded in some forest specialist birds and in most open‐habitat birds, showing increasing densities from edges to interior habitats. We thus suggest that increasing landscape‐scale habitat complexity would be beneficial to declining species living in mosaic landscapes combining small woodlands and open habitats. Edge effects between forests and adjacent open habitats may also favor bird functional guilds providing valuable ecosystem services to forests in longstanding fragmented landscapes.     

Bird community responses to habitat fragmentation: how consistent are they across landscapes?

Aim The woodland ecosystems of south‐eastern Australia have been extensively disturbed by agriculture and urbanization. Herein, the occurrence of birds in woodland remnants in three distinct landscapes was analysed to examine the effects of different types of landscape matrices on species richness vs. area and species richness vs. isolation relationships and individual species responses to woodland fragmentation. Location The study system comprised three distinct woodland landscapes of the northern Australian Capital Territory and bordering areas of New South Wales. These landscapes (termed agricultural, peri‐urban and urban) are located within 50 km of each other, have remnant fragments of similar age, size, isolation, woodland cover, elevation and climates. The major distinguishing feature of the three landscapes was the properties of the habitats surrounding the numerous woodland remnants. Methods Bird surveys, using an area‐search methodology, were conducted in 1999 and 2000 in 127 remnants in the three landscapes to determine bird species presence/absence. Each remnant was characterized by measures of remnant area, isolation and habitat complexity. To characterize differences between each landscape, we conducted an analysis of the amount of tree cover and human disturbance in each landscape using SPOT imagery and aerial photographs. Linear regressions of woodland‐dependent species richness vs. remnant area and remnant isolation for the three different landscapes were calculated to see if there were any apparent differences. Binomial logistic regressions were used to determine the relationships between the occurrence of each species and the size and isolation of woodland habitat, in each landscape. Results All the landscapes displayed a significant (P < 0.01) species vs. area relationship, but the slope of the urban relationship was significantly greater than those of the other landscapes. In contrast, only the agricultural landscape displayed a significant (P < 0.01) species richness vs. isolation relationship. When individual species were investigated, we found species that were: (1) apparently insensitive to reduction in remnant area and increase in isolation across all landscapes, (2) absent in small remnants in all landscapes, (3) absent in small remnants in all landscapes and also absent in isolated remnants in the agricultural landscape, (4) absent in isolated remnants in the agricultural landscape, and (5) absent in small remnants in the urban landscape. Threshold values (50% probability of occurrence) for area and isolation for individual species were highly variable across the three landscapes. Main conclusions These results indicate that woodland bird communities have a varying response to habitat fragmentation in different landscapes. Whilst we cannot be sure how representative our chosen landscapes are of other similarly composed landscapes, these results suggest that the type of landscape matrix may have a considerable influence on how bird species are affected by woodland fragmentation in the region. For instance, the properties of a matrix may influence both the resources available in the landscape as a whole for different bird species, and the connectivity (dispersal of birds), between woodland remnants. We encourage further research that examines these hypotheses and argue that the management of the matrix should be included in conservation strategies for fragmented landscapes.     

The spatial distribution of birds and carabid beetles in pine plantation forests: the role of landscape composition and structure

Aim To evaluate the joint and independent effects of spatial location, landscape composition and landscape structure on the distribution patterns of bird and carabid beetle assemblages in a mosaic landscape dominated by pine plantation forests. Location A continuous 3000‐ha landscape mosaic with native maritime pine Pinus pinaster plantations of different ages, deciduous woodlands and open habitats, located in the Landes de Gascogne forest of south‐western France. Methods We sampled breeding birds by 20‐min point counts and carabid beetles by pitfall trapping using a systematic grid sampling of 200 points every 400 m over the whole landscape. Explanatory variables were composed of three data sets derived from GIS habitat mapping: (1) spatial variables (polynomial terms of geographical coordinates of samples), (2) landscape composition as the percentage cover of the six main habitats, and (3) landscape structure metrics including indices of fragmentation and spatial heterogeneity. We used canonical correspondence analysis with variance partitioning to evaluate the joint and independent effects of the three sets of variables on the ordination of species assemblages. Moran's I correlograms and Mantel tests were used to assess for spatial structure in species distribution and relationships with separate landscape attributes. Results Landscape composition was the main factor explaining the distribution patterns of birds and carabids at the mesoscale of 400 × 400 m. Independent effects of spatial variables and landscape structure were still significant for bird assemblages once landscape composition was controlled for, but not for carabid assemblages. Spatial distributions of birds and carabids were primarily influenced by the amount of heathlands, young pine plantations, herbaceous firebreaks and deciduous woodlands. Deciduous woodland species had positive responses to edge density, while open habitat species were positively associated with mean patch area. Main conclusions Forest birds were favoured by an increase in deciduous woodland cover and landscape heterogeneity, but there was no evidence for a similar effect on carabid beetles. Fragmentation of open habitats negatively affected both early‐successional birds and carabids, specialist species being restricted to large heathlands and young plantations. Several birds of conservation concern were associated with mosaics of woodlands and grasslands, especially meadows and firebreaks. Conserving biodiversity in mosaic plantation landscapes could be achieved by the maintenance of a significant amount of early‐successional habitats and deciduous woodland patches within a conifer plantation matrix.     

Forest bird diversity in Mediterranean areas affected by wildfires: a multi-scale approach

Fire is a key mechanism creating and maintaining habitat heterogeneity in Mediterranean landscapes by turning continuous woody landscapes into mosaics of forests and shrublands. Due to the long historical role of fires in the Mediterranean, we hypothesised a moderate negative effect of this type of perturbation on forest bird distribution at a landscape level. We conducted point bird censuses in Aleppo pine forest patches surrounded by burnt shrublands and studied the relationships between three ecological groups of bird species (forest canopy species, forest understorey species, and ubiquitous species) and the features of local habitat, whole patch and surrounding landscape. We used a multi-scale approach to assess the effects of landscape variables at increasing spatial scales on point bird richness. Regarding local habitat components, canopy species were positively associated with tall pines while understorey species with the cover of shrubs and plants from holm-oak forests. Forest birds were positively related to patch size and irregular forest shapes, that is, with high perimeter/size ratios. Thus, these species did not seem to perceive edges as low quality but rather favourable microhabitats. We did not detect any negative effect of isolation or cover of woodlands in the landscape on the presence of forest species after local habitat factors had been accounted for. Finally, only local habitat factors entered the model for ubiquitous species. We suggest that mosaic-like landscapes shaped by fires in the Mediterranean basin are not strongly associated with negative effects fragmentation on forest birds other than those related with habitat loss.     

Bird species in Mediterranean pine plantations exhibit different characteristics to those in natural reforested woodlands

Passive woodland regeneration following cropland abandonment and pine plantations are two major approaches for vegetation restoration in agricultural landscapes in the Mediterranean Basin. We compared the effects of these two contrasting approaches on local bird density in central Spain on the basis of species characteristics, including regional density, habitat breadth, life-history traits and plumage colouration. Local bird density increased with regional density and habitat breadth in both woodland and pine plantation plots following macroecological patterns of bird abundance and distribution. In woodlands, dichromatic species were more abundant than monochromatic species and bird density increased with the intensity of territory defense and as the proportion of plumage colour generated by pheomelanin decreased. Contrary to our prediction, this latter observation suggests that woodlands may induce higher levels of physiological stress in birds than pine plantations even though these represent a novel habitat change. In pine plantations, sedentary species were more abundant than migratory species and bird density was negatively related to body and egg mass. These traits of bird species in pine plantations are characteristic of successful invaders. The variation in bird density explained by phylogeny was twice as high in pine plantations as in woodlands, suggesting that pine plantations limit accessibility to some clades. Our results support, from an evolutionary perspective, the described inability of pine plantations on cropland to maintain or increase bird diversity in Mediterranean agricultural landscapes.     

Long‐term dynamics of bird diversity in forest and suburb: decay,turnover or homogenization?

Aim Urbanization and deforestation are important drivers of biodiversity change. However, long‐term changes in faunal communities within urbanizing regions are poorly understood. We investigated how well observed community changes in both space and time agree with expectations based on current paradigms in urban ecology. Location Greater Brisbane region, Australia. Methods We compared bird assemblages in two time‐periods 15 years apart, at multiple sites in remnant forest and residential suburbs across an urbanizing landscape. Differences in assemblage composition, species abundances and functional groupings were assessed within and between habitats. Results Compared with forest, suburbs in both time‐periods had over twice the total bird abundance, a different species composition, greater between‐site community similarity, a greater proportion of non‐native species and greater dominance by large‐bodied species. These differences corresponded with changes in sites whose habitat was converted from forest to suburb. Between time‐periods, abundances of 58% of suburban species changed significantly compared with those of 11% in forest. Increaser species outnumbered decreasers in suburbs, with the reverse in forest. Abundance of small‐bodied birds decreased 70% in suburbs and 20% in forest. Broad‐spectrum competitors and nest predators were common among suburban increasers. Among invasive species, the number of increasers was counterbalanced by decreasers. Both site‐scale species richness and between‐site community similarity increased to a small extent in both habitats. Main conclusions Species composition and ecological function of suburban bird communities were very dynamic. Suburban assemblages were neither a subset of forest species nor an increasingly non‐native compilation. Communities in large forest patches were comparatively stable. The notion of habitat‐specific species turnover better characterizes the nature of most changes than either species decline or homogenization, even though both of these were evident. There is considerable scope for careful urban planning, focused on both among‐ and within‐habitat variety, to sustain bird diversity in urbanizing landscapes.     

Indices of bird-habitat preference from field surveys of birds and remote sensing of land cover: a study of south-eastern England with wider implications for conservation and biodiversity assessment

Aim This paper describes the development of novel indices of bird‐habitat preference to examine bird species’ use of habitats and their distributions relative to habitats. It assesses the implications for bird conservation regionally and the scope for biodiversity assessments generally. Location A 200 km by 400 km area of farmland with seminatural and urban areas, covering south‐eastern England. Methods Cluster analysis was used to link birds to landscapes. Cluster centroid coordinate values were processed to derive indices of bird‐habitat preference. Further developments assessed the relative values of individual habitats for birds. Results Clustering objectively linked birds to landscapes. Maps of the clusters showed strong regional patterns associated with distinctive habitat assemblages. Derived indices related bird species directly to individual habitats and habitats to birds. Even rare species and scarce habitats showed successful linkages, often to each other. Objective corroboration strongly supported the associations of coastal, wetland, urban and woodland birds and habitats; but, it suggested that farmland birds, whose numbers have nearly halved since 1977, may prefer alternative habitats. Main conclusions Land cover maps from remote sensing provide an effective way to link birds to habitats and vice versa. Thus, generalized habitat maps might be used to extrapolate localized or sample‐based bird observations or the results of autecological studies, helping to predict and understand bird distributions in the wider countryside. The weak links between farmland birds and farmland habitats in a region dominated by farming, suggests that reasons for the decline in farmland birds may be deep seated and thus hard to reverse. The procedures described are repeatable elsewhere and applicable more generally to evaluate landscapes and biodiversity. It is suggested that remote sensing could rarely be bettered as a means of assessing habitats, comprehensively, over wide areas, in most parts of the world.     

Seeking parsimony in landscape metrics

Numerous metrics describing landscape patterns have been used to explain landscape-scale habitat selection by birds. The myriad metrics, their complexity, and inconsistent responses to them by birds have led to a lack of clear recommendations for managing land for desired species. The amount of a target land cover type in the landscape (percentage cover) often has been a useful indicator of the likelihood of species occurrence or of habitat selection; is it also a more adequate and parsimonious measure for explaining species distributions than patch size or more complex measures of landscape configuration? We examined responses of 6 woodland-interior bird species to the percentage tree cover within prescribed areas and to patch size, edge density, and other metrics. We examined responses in 2 landscapes: a mixed woodland-savanna and an eastern deciduous forest. For these 6 species, percentage tree cover explained bird occurrence as well as or better than other measures in both study areas. We then repeated the analysis on a larger group of woodland species, including those associated with woodland edges. The bird species we studied had varied responses to landscape metrics, but percentage tree cover was the strongest explanatory variable overall. Although percentage cover estimated from remotely sensed data is an inexact representation of habitat in the landscape, it does appear to be reliable and easy to conceptualize, relative to other measures. We suggest that, at least for woodland habitat, percentage cover is a broadly useful measure that can be helpful in pragmatic questions of explaining responses to landscapes or in anticipating responses to landscape change. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Woodland birds in patchy landscapes: the evidence base for strategic networks

Habitat creation and management within wooded networks is a potentially effective strategy to reduce ecological isolation and the deleterious effects of fragmentation. However, questions remain over the relative advantages of different approaches, e.g. buffering patches vs. increasing connectivity. Potential effects of woodland fragmentation include reduction in regional woodland cover, reduced patch size, edge effects with loss of core habitat, and increased isolation with disruption of dispersal and metapopulation dynamics. We adopt an evidence-based approach to review how each of these affects woodland birds with an emphasis on studies from the UK and use this to identify management priorities for mitigation. There is evidence for both patch area and composition effects: larger woodlands support more woodland bird species, and woods located within sparsely wooded landscapes are less valuable to specialist woodland species. Bird assemblages show a nested pattern with respect to area, and thus species found in small woods also occur in large woods but not vice versa. However, small woods may be preferred by a few edge species, while small woods also have greater variability in bird species composition. Consideration of the metapopulation dynamics of specialist species with poor dispersal shows that creating or buffering large woodlands is more efficient than a greater total area of small fragments. Connectivity appears most useful for widespread generalist species with almost continuous populations. Woodland structure and quality are of overwhelming importance: as well as mature woodland, young growth, scrub and edges are also key components. There is an urgent need to examine the relationship between nest predation and landscape structure within UK woodlands.     

Remotely‐sensed foliage cover and ground‐measured stand attributes are complimentary when estimating tree hollow abundances across relictual woodlands in agricultural landscapes

Hollows, also known as tree cavities, are critical to the survival of many animal species but are too poorly mapped across landscapes to allow for their adequate consideration in regional planning. Managing cost is important, so we tested whether freely available satellite‐derived foliage projective cover and field‐measured stand attributes could be used separately or combined to predict tree hollow abundance in relictual Australian temperate woodlands. Satellite‐derived foliage projective cover revealed variation in woody vegetation densities both within mapped woodland remnants and cleared areas of the agricultural matrix. Plot‐based field assessment of the actual number of hollows in each one‐hectare site (n = 110 sites) revealed a relationship with foliage cover. Improvement of the model was achieved if site‐based estimates of the proportion of the canopy due to Eucalyptus species and the number of mature trees per hectare were included. Remotely sensed foliage cover can improve on traditional vegetation mapping for predicting hollow‐bearing tree and hollow abundances at landscape scales when managing hollow‐dependent fauna habitat across relictual woodlands in temperate Australian agricultural landscapes. At finer scales, the addition of other predictors is necessary to raise the accuracy of the predicted hollow densities.     

The effects of urban or rural landscape context and distance from the edge on native woodland plant communities

The increasing rate of urban sprawl continues to fragment European landscapes threatening the persistence of native woodland plant communities. The dynamics of woodland edges depend on the characteristics of woodland patches and also on landscape context. Our aim was to assess the extent of edge influences on the understorey vegetation of small native woodlands in rural and urban landscapes. The study was carried out in two cities of north-western France. Ten comparable woodlands, each of about 1.5 ha, were surveyed; five were situated adjacent to crops and five adjacent to built-up land. Vascular plant species were recorded in 420 3 × 3 m plots placed at seven different distances from the edge (from 0 to about 45 m from the edge). Soil pH, light levels, level of disturbance and tree and shrub cover were also recorded. Plant species were first classified as non-indigenous or indigenous and then three groups of indigenous species were distinguished according to their affinity for forest habitat (forest specialists, forest generalists and non-forest species). We inferred certain ecological characteristics of understorey vegetation by using Ellenberg values. An inter-class correspondence analysis was carried out to detect patterns of variation in plant community composition. Linear mixed models were used to test the effects of adjacent land use, distance from the edge and their interactions on the species richness of the different groups and on the ecological characteristics of vegetation. Total species richness, richness of forest generalists and of non-forest species decreased from edge to interior in both urban and rural woodlands. The number of non-indigenous species depended mainly on urban–rural landscape context. Urban woodland edges were not as rich in forest specialists as rural edges. More surprisingly, the number of forest specialists was higher in rural edges than in rural interiors. Community composition was mainly affected by urban–rural context and to a lesser degree by the edge effect: the community composition of urban edges resembled that of urban interiors whereas in rural woodlands vegetation near edges (up to 10 m) strongly differed from interiors with a pool of species specific to edges. Urban woodland vegetation was more nitrophilous than rural vegetation in both edges and interiors. A major difference between urban and rural vegetation was the distribution of basiphilous species according to distance from the edge. Generally edge vegetation was more basiphilous than interior vegetation however the presence of basiphilous species fell off quickly with distance from the edge in rural woodlands (in the first 10–15 m) and more slowly (from 25 m onwards) in urban woodlands. This pattern was linked to variation in measured soil pH. As regards the conservation of flora in small native woodlands, it appeared that invasion of exotic and non-forest species was currently limited in both urban and rural landscape contexts but might pose problems in the future, especially in urban woodlands. Forest species were not negatively affected by the edge effect and indeed edges seemed to provide important habitats for this group. Hence conservationists should pay particular attention to the protection of edges in urban woodlands.     

Water availability drives aboveground biomass and bird richness in forest restoration plantings to achieve carbon and biodiversity cobenefits

To combat global warming and biodiversity loss, we require effective forest restoration that encourages recovery of species diversity and ecosystem function to deliver essential ecosystem services, such as biomass accumulation. Further, understanding how and where to undertake restoration to achieve carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation would provide an opportunity to finance ecosystem restoration under carbon markets. We surveyed 30 native mixed‐species plantings in subtropical forests and woodlands in Australia and used structural equation modeling to determine vegetation, soil, and climate variables most likely driving aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness and investigate the relationships between plant diversity, aboveground biomass accrual, and bird diversity. We focussed on woodland and forest‐dependent birds, and functional groups at risk of decline (insectivorous, understorey‐nesting, and small‐bodied birds). We found that mean moisture availability strongly limits aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness in restoration plantings, indicating potential synergies in choosing sites for carbon and biodiversity purposes. Counter to theory, woody plant richness was a poor direct predictor of aboveground biomass accrual, but was indirectly related via significant, positive effects of stand density. We also found no direct relationship between aboveground biomass accrual and bird richness, likely because of the strong effects of moisture availability on both variables. Instead, moisture availability and patch size strongly and positively influenced the richness of woodland and forest‐dependent birds. For understorey‐nesting birds, however, shrub cover and patch size predicted richness. Stand age or area of native vegetation surrounding the patch did not influence bird richness. Our results suggest that in subtropical biomes, planting larger patches to higher densities, ideally using a diversity of trees and shrubs (characteristics of ecological plantings) in more mesic locations will enhance the provision of carbon and biodiversity cobenefits. Further, ecological plantings will aid the rapid recovery of woodland and forest bird richness, with comparable aboveground biomass accrual to less diverse forestry plantations.     

Bat Response to Woodland Restoration within Urban Forest Fragments

In urban environments, woodland areas are typically fragmented and subject to invasive species encroachment, woody overgrowth, and natural succession. In response to negative impacts, conservationists and land managers have implemented restoration strategies to enhance the integrity of woodlands. Because woodland habitat is important for bats (Order Chiroptera), alterations to forest structures may affect how bats utilize forest fragments in urban environments. We evaluated relationships among restoration efforts, microhabitat characteristics and overall bat activity, and interspecific variation among bats in response to woodland characteristics. We monitored bats in nine woodland forest preserves representing various stages of restoration within the Chicago metropolitan area in 2004 and 2005. Overall bat activity was positively related to prescribed burning, invasive species removal, and small tree density (7.7‐20 cm dbh) and inversely related to shrub density and clutter at 0‐6 m heights. There was interspecific variation in response to alterations in woodland structure, with Lasiurus borealis (L. borealis) positively associated with small and medium (20.1‐33 cm) tree densities and inversely related to clutter at 0‐9 m; Myotis spp. positively associated with canopy cover, clutter at 6‐9 m, and small and medium tree densities; and Lasionycteris noctivagans (L. noctivagans) positively associated with more open forests. Eptesicus fuscus (E. fuscus) activity was not strongly associated with any measured vegetation variable. Our results demonstrate bats positively respond to some forms of woodland restoration in urban landscapes. However, species‐specific responses to vegetation differed and should be taken into consideration when developing management plans.     

Relative value of riparian woodlands in landscapes with different forest cover for medium-sized Iberian carnivores

This study analyses the role of riparian woodland in the conservation of five common carnivore species as compared with other non-riparian habitats according to woodland cover on the landscape scale (>60, 20–35 and <15% on 20 × 20-km surface area). I hypothesised that the importance of riparian woodlands in carnivore conservation on the regional scale would be greater in landscapes with low forest cover than in those with intermediate or high forest cover. To test this hypothesis, in each landscape type I sampled five riparian forests and 10–15 non-riparian habitats and recorded species richness and frequency of occurrence (number of sampled sites with species presence/total sampled sites) in both habitat types. The presence of (or use by) species at each particular sampling site was recorded using sign-surveys (search for scats and badger dens). The relative importance of riparian and non-riparian habitats in each landscape type was analysed by comparing species richness and frequency of occurrence for each species. Comparison of species richness and frequency of occurrence between landscape types indicate that riparian woodlands are important habitats in all landscape contexts. However, in accordance with the initial hypothesis, riparian woodlands are essential for carnivore conservation in the most deforested areas. Any agricultural or development policy should take into account the need to maintain and preserve riparian woodlands in landscapes, especially in intensively cultivated landscapes.     

Changes in forest bird abundance,community structure and composition following a hurricane in Sweden

The effect that extreme natural events have on biological diversity is relatively poorly known. We used a before–after control‐impact (BACI) design to analyze changes in bird abundances and communities following Hurricane Gudrun, which struck southern Sweden in January 2005, felling 75 million m³ of forest and causing damage to 5% of forested areas (half a million hectares) in a few hours. We used recent measures of impact in combination with classical BACI contrasts to analyze bird count data from a monitoring program in Sweden. We investigated changes in the abundance of 17 species commonly found in forests, along with changes in species composition and functional structure of the bird community. In total, we considered 34 response variables and examined whether responses were immediate or long‐term. There was no evidence of a strong effect of the hurricane on the abundances of six species. Estimates of the effects on five species were too uncertain to draw inferences. We detected positive and negative effects of the hurricane on the abundances of the remaining six species, but the magnitude of effects often was small. Generally, the effects were in the expected direction: negative on birds associated with mature forest and positive on birds associated with open land or young forest. We found evidence of an increase in the proportion of species that nest on the ground and a decrease in the proportion of species that nest in cavities and trees. In contrast, the hurricane had no discernible effect on functional measures of diversity (richness, evenness or divergence), or on communities’ reproductive or morphological characteristics. Our results suggest that the hurricane affected bird populations and communities, but the magnitude of effects was generally small.     

Are bird density,species richness and community structure similar between native woodlands and non-native plantations in an area with a generalist bird fauna?

This study compared the bird assemblages of native semi-natural woodlands and non-native Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) plantations in Ireland to identify what vegetation variables most influenced birds and to identify management targets in plantations to maximise future bird conservation. Point counts were conducted in 10 Oak (Quercus spp.) and 10 Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) native woodlands and in five Mid-rotation (20–30 years old) and five Mature (30–50 years old) Sitka spruce plantations. Ordination was used to characterise woodland types according to their constituent bird species. Total bird density (calculated using Distance software) and species richness were assessed for the different woodland types. Oak and Ash woodland bird assemblages were separated from Mid-rotation and Mature plantations by the ordination. There was no difference in total bird density between any of the woodland types. Oak woodlands had significantly higher species richness than either Mid-rotation or Mature Sitka spruce plantations. Ash had higher species richness than Mature Sitka spruce plantations. Understorey vegetation was negatively associated with total bird density, which also varied with survey year. Understorey vegetation was positively associated with species richness. Reasons for the relationships between vegetation and bird assemblages are discussed. Management should seek to increase shrub and understorey vegetation in the Mid-rotation phase to improve the contribution of plantations to bird conservation.     

A meta‐analysis of bird and mammal response to short‐rotation woody crops

Short‐rotation woody cropping (SRWC) refers to silvicultural systems designed to produce woody biomass using short harvest cycles (1–15 years), intensive silvicultural techniques, high‐yielding varieties, and often coppice regeneration. Recent emphasis on alternatives to fossil fuels has spurred interest in producing SRWC on privately owned and intensively managed forests of North America. We examined potential bird and small mammal response at the stand level to conversion of existing, intensively managed forests to SRWCs using meta‐analysis of existing studies. We found 257 effect sizes for birds (243 effect sizes) and mammals (14 effect sizes) from 8 studies involving Populus spp. plantations. Diversity and abundance of bird guilds were lower on short‐rotation plantations compared with reference woodlands, while abundance of individual bird species was more variable and not consistently higher or lower on SRWC plantations. Shrub‐associated birds were more abundant on SRWC plantations, but forest‐associated and cavity‐nesting birds were less abundant. Effects on birds appeared to decrease with age of the SRWC plantation, but plantation age was also confounded with variation in the type of reference forest used for comparison. Both guilds and species of mammals were less abundant on SRWC plantations. These conclusions are tentative because none of these studies directly compared SRWC plantations to intensively managed forests. Plantations of SRWCs could contribute to overall landscape diversity in forest‐dominated landscapes by providing shrubby habitat structure for nonforest species. However, extensive conversion of mature or intensively managed forests to SRWC would likely decrease overall diversity, especially if they replace habitat types of high conservation value.     

Eucalypt plantings on farms benefit woodland birds in south‐eastern Australia

Abstract Most of the original forest and woodland cover on the western slopes of New South Wales and the northern plains of Victoria has been cleared for agriculture (wheat, sheep and cattle) and what remains is highly fragmented and modified by a long history of disturbance. Over the past three decades, native eucalypt trees and shrubs have been planted extensively in a part of this region to provide a range of environmental benefits. Our aim was to determine the extent to which these plantings could improve biological diversity in agricultural landscapes in south‐eastern Australia and to identify the variables influencing their effectiveness. We sampled birds at 120 sites encompassing the range of available patch sizes, stand ages, floristic and structural conditions, and habitat attributes for revegetated areas and remnants of native vegetation, and we compared these to nearby paddocks. Eucalypt plantings were found to provide significant improvements in bird population density compared with cleared or sparsely treed paddocks, and mixed eucalypt and shrub plantings had similar bird communities to remnant native forest and woodland in the region. Birds displayed a strong response to patch size, with both larger (≥5–20 ha) eucalypt plantings and larger (≥5–20 ha) remnants having more species and more individuals per unit area than smaller (<5 ha) patches of these vegetation types. Older (10–25 years) plantings had more bird species and individuals than young (<10 years) plantings. The distance from remnant forest and woodland (habitat connectivity) appeared to be an important variable influencing bird species richness in eucalypt plantings. The main differences were due to the greater numbers of species classified as woodland‐dependent in the larger‐sized patches of plantings and remnants. Eucalypt plantings provided useful habitat for at least 10 declining woodland‐dependent species, notably for the Speckled Warbler, Red‐capped Robin and Rufous Whistler. The Brown Treecreeper and Dusky Woodswallow appeared to be the species most limited by the extent of remnant forest and woodland in the region. Plantings of all shapes and sizes, especially those larger than 5 ha, have an important role to play in providing habitat for many bird species. Restoration efforts are more likely to be successful if eucalypt plantings are established near existing remnant vegetation.     

Relative importance of the land‐use composition and intensity for the bird community composition in anthropogenic landscapes

Humans are changing the biosphere by exerting pressure on land via different land uses with variable intensities. Quantifying the relative importance of the land‐use composition and intensity for communities may provide valuable insights for understanding community dynamics in human‐dominated landscapes. Here, we evaluate the relative importance of the land‐use composition versus land‐use intensity on the bird community structure in the highly human‐dominated region surrounding Paris, France. The land‐use composition was calculated from a land cover map, whereas the land‐use intensity (reverse intensity) was represented by the primary productivity remaining after human appropriation (NPP_remaining), which was estimated using remote sensing imagery. We used variance partitioning to evaluate the relative importance of the land‐use composition versus intensity for explaining bird community species richness, total abundance, trophic levels, and habitat specialization in urban, farmland, and woodland habitats. The land‐use composition and intensity affected specialization and richness more than trophic levels and abundance. The importance of the land‐use intensity was slightly higher than that of the composition for richness, specialization, and trophic levels in farmland and urban areas, while the land‐use composition was a stronger predictor of abundance. The intensity contributed more to the community indices in anthropogenic habitats (farmland and urban areas) than to those in woodlands. Richness, trophic levels, and specialization in woodlands tended to increase with the NPP_remaining value. The heterogeneity of land uses and intensity levels in the landscape consistently promoted species richness but reduced habitat specialization and trophic levels. This study demonstrates the complementarity of NPP_remaining to the land‐use composition for understanding community structure in anthropogenic landscapes. Our results show, for the first time, that the productivity remaining after human appropriation is a determinant driver of animal community patterns, independent of the type of land use.     

Tropical forest loss drives divergent patterns in functional diversity of forest and non-forest birds

Tropical forests have been facing high rates of deforestation driven by multiple anthropogenic disturbances, with severe consequences for biodiversity. However, the understanding of such effects on functional diversity is still limited in tropical regions, especially considering different ecological groups responses. Here, we evaluated the functional responses of birds to forest loss at the threatened Brazilian Atlantic forest, considering the complete assemblage, and both forest-dependent and non-forest-dependent species. Birds were surveyed in 40 forest sites with a forest cover gradient, located in two regions showing different land use types. We tested different models to assess the responses of functional diversity indices to forest loss in these sites. Although functional diversity did not differ between regions, forest and non-forest birds showed divergent responses to forest loss. Deforested landscapes presented an increase in functional richness (SESFRic) and evenness for forest species and an increase of functional dispersion for non-forest birds. Additionally, forested landscapes harbor birds presenting lower body mass and wing length, and non-forest species with lower tarsus length. The maintenance of some functional metrics through forest loss resulted from a compensatory dynamic between forest and non-forest birds, indicating that only evaluating the complete assemblage may mask important idiosyncratic patterns of different ecological groups. Although non-forest species are relatively capable to maintain bird functional diversity in deforested landscapes, forest birds are facing a drastic ongoing collapse in these sites, representing an alarming signal for the maintenance of forest ecosystem function.