植食性哺乳动物觅食的功能反应及其模型

章主要介绍植食性哺乳动物觅食功能反应与模型的研究进展。植食性哺乳动物觅食的摄入率与其食物可利用性的功能反应是动物觅食生态学过程的基础。可利用植物的生物量密度、植物密度、植物大小、以及动物觅食的口量是影响动物觅食功能反应的潜在变量集。这些变量的差异导致动物功能反应格局的复杂化。生物量密度和植物密度对动物摄入率无明显影响,而植物大小对动物摄入率则有显影响。有食物密集的斑块条件下,以植物大小代替动物     

野生动物觅食地选择的研究进展

觅食地选择是指个体对不同觅食地的非随机利用,是影响个体生存力和适合度的行为反应。觅食地的质量影响着动物的生存和繁殖,直接决定了动物种群的续存。一直以来,觅食地选择都是动物生态学研究的热点领域之一。本文从动物觅食地选择的理论背景、影响因素和时空尺度变异等3个角度,对现有的觅食地选择研究进行了综述,并通过对一些研究案例的剖析,从理论和实践上探寻动物觅食地选择的理论机制,进而为今后的觅食地研究提出相应建议。     

非人灵长类觅食行为生态学研究进展

觅食行为生态学是动物生态学研究的主要内容之一.从食物选择研究方法、食物选择策略机制、觅食行为的影响因素等方面综述非人灵长类动物觅食行为生态学研究进展.食物选择策略和活动时间分配是觅食行为生态学研究的主要内容.非人灵长类动物觅食行为生态学的研究对动物保护、人工驯养和繁殖具有重要意义.     

行为生态学(五):动物的觅食技巧

动物的觅食行为包括对食物的搜寻、捕捉和加工处理三个方面。动物觅食的搜寻方式、捕食效率和处理技能都对动物的食性范围有直接影响。但是这三种觅食技能的相对重要性却依食物的特性而有所不同,以叶栖昆虫为食的小型鸟类就是这方面的一个典型事例,这些鸟类专门以小型和隐蔽的猎物为食,所以它们特别善于搜寻,而不太善于追捕和对付那些比较活跃的动物。下面就动物觅食行为的三种技能分别作些简要介绍。     

植食性哺乳动物食物选择的生态学意义及行为机制

综述了植食性哺乳动物食物选择行为机制的研究进展。植食性动物的食物选择是觅食生态学研究最为活跃的领域,动物食物选择对策主要有营养选择、植物次生化合物假设、营养平衡假设、最优觅食理论和条件性气味回避假设。动物学习食物选择的行为过程中,觅食个体能通过其认知过程和感知过程来处理食物信息、学习选择食物项目是一种可塑性行为方式,有利于动物获得适应栖息地的行为模式。幼体通过社会学习自母体学习的觅食经验,在幼体一生的食物选择中均具有重要的作用。在环境条件相对稳定条件下,幼体可模仿成体的食物选择模式;在环境剧烈变化的条件下,动物通过试错学习选择的食物项目可能较模仿成体所摄取的食物项目营养含量更丰富。     

社群学习对植食性鸟类和哺乳动物觅食行为的作用

社群学习是动物的一种可塑性行为表现型式。综述了社群学习对植食性鸟类和哺乳动物觅食行为的作用,并述评了其学习机制。社群同伴对动物个体觅食地点、时间和取食方式均有影响,母体摄食的食物信息可通过胎盘和乳汁显著影响幼体的食物选择。动物通过观察学习、嗅闻学习以及味觉厌恶学习,不仅能更快找到食物资源,提高觅食效率,而且能有效降低中毒与被捕食的风险,从而提高其适合度。     

植物对植食性哺乳动物的化学防卫

综述植物次生合物防卫植食性哺乳动物食的研究进展,植物组织的次生化合物主要为酚类、萜类及含N类化合物,植物对动物觅食的化学防卫对策以次生化合物的各类而有差异,次生化合物通过对动物的食物摄入、消化、代谢,以及敏殖活动的效应,以抵御动物的觅食。将植物化学防卫与动物适应对策相结合,探讨动物－植物协同进化模式,是该研究领域的主要发展趋势。     

捕食风险及其对动物觅食行为的影响

对捕食风险的涵义及其对猎物动物觅食行为的影响、猎物动物面对捕食风险时的反应进行了论述。捕食风险可以简单地理解为一定时间内猎物动物被杀死的概率。当捕食风险存在时 ,动物会选择相对安全但觅食效益较低的地点觅食 ;由于死亡率和消化方面的限制 ,一般都会产生食谱收缩 ;觅食活动方式的时间格局也会因捕食风险而发生改变 ,如水生动物的昼夜垂直迁移、某些陆生动物昼行性与夜行性活动的转换、月光回避等。在与捕食者发生遭遇时 ,猎物动物的主要反应是 :①发出某些信号以阻止捕食者的追捕 ;②靠近并注视捕食者 ;③逃逸 ;④在一定的时间恢复觅食活动。在以往的研究中 ,对捕食者种类已经有了较多的了解 ,而对猎物如何判断捕食者丰富度信息、估计风险程度等方面则知之甚少 ;同时 ,对捕食风险水平的调控、对多种因素的综合分析也较少涉及。在今后的研究中 ,还应该考虑研究的尺度问题 ,因为在不同尺度的环境条件下 ,猎物动物对于捕食风险的反应可能大相径庭。     

急性捕食风险不能完全限制饥饿 雌性长爪沙鼠的觅食活动

觅食活动是动物生存和繁殖所必需的基本的活动,受个体生理状态（如饥饿）和环境状况（如捕食、食物可利用性）时空变化的影响,能量状态-风险分配假说指出,动物在应对不同风险时会优化觅食和反捕食努力的时间和能量分配。然而,有关啮齿动物觅食决策的能量状态-捕食风险分配假说的研究结论尚不统一。本研究在野外实验室以艾鼬（Mustela eversmannii）气味作为捕食风险刺激源,以非捕食者（马）气味源作为对照,首先通过Y型观测箱检验雌性饥饿长爪沙鼠（Meriones unguiculatus）对捕食者气味的辨别能力（Wilcoxon 秩检验）;在此基础上通过中立场行为观测箱分别测定饥饿雌鼠在“有食物和天敌气味源”与“有食物和非天敌气味源”环境下的觅食活动,采用Mann-Whitney Z检验比较两者间的行为差异,以验证急性捕食风险限制饥饿沙鼠觅食活动的假设,并探讨动物在饥饿风险与捕食风险共存情况下的觅食行为对策。结果显示,（1）长爪沙鼠对天敌气味反应明显,厌恶和回避有较高潜在捕食风险的空间;（2）虽然觅食潜伏期在捕食风险存在时有所增加,但急性捕食风险并未影响饥饿沙鼠的觅食频次,沙鼠通过缩短每次觅食的持续时间来应对捕食风险;与此同时,（3）饥饿沙鼠在急性捕食风险条件下对环境探究的次数明显增加,一定程度上提高反捕食努力,且自我修饰表现显著,以缓释捕食压力的恐惧效应。这些结果表明,急性捕食风险不能完全抑制饥饿沙鼠的觅食努力,在有捕食风险情况下,饥饿的长爪沙鼠会权衡觅食获取能量和避免捕食的收益和代价,优化觅食策略。本研究结果支持能量状态-风险分配假说关于在短期高风险情况下反捕食努力分配更多,但当动物在饥饿风险持续时间比例显著增加时,动物最终也必须在高风险情况下觅食的预测,也反映了长爪沙鼠对食物资源不可预测及捕食风险高的干旱半干旱荒漠环境的行为适应对策。     

斑块质量对大斑啄木鸟冬季觅食行为的影响

为了解大斑啄木鸟(Dendrocopos major)冬季对食物斑块的利用对策,2011年1月和2012年2～3月,在内蒙古乌拉特前旗的农田防护林中,采用目标动物取样法和全事件记录法,观察了大斑啄木鸟在食物斑块的觅食行为,利用主成分分析方法对斑块质量进行评价,通过比较不同质量斑块中大斑啄木鸟的觅食频次、停留时间、觅食成功频次及觅食成功率等指标,分析斑块质量对其觅食行为的影响。结果显示,在不同质量斑块中大斑啄木鸟的觅食频次、停留时间、觅食成功频次差异都极显著,但觅食成功率差异不显著;除停留时间外,不同性别间觅食差异不显著。大斑啄木鸟的觅食频次、停留时间、觅食成功频次与斑块质量呈显著正相关,觅食成功率与斑块质量相关性不显著。大斑啄木鸟倾向于在质量水平高的斑块觅食,表现为在这些斑块停留时间更长、往返次数更频繁;但觅食成功率不受斑块质量影响,这可能是大斑啄木鸟适应不同觅食环境的一种生存本能。     

秦岭南坡川金丝猴的食物组成及季节性变化

2013年3月至2014年2月,在秦岭南坡观音山自然保护区大坪峪颜家沟内选取一群半野生川金丝猴的成年个体作为研究对象,采用瞬时扫描取样法收集其觅食的食物类型数据,目的是为该猴群建立食谱,并通过对比不同季节内觅取的食物组成差异探讨秦岭南坡川金丝猴如何应对喜食食物的季节性缺乏。结果表明：秦岭南坡川金丝猴共采食53种植物（包括34种乔木、13种灌木、6种藤本植物）和4种大型真菌,分别占取食植物组成的64.3%、25.3%、8.0%和2.2%,春、夏、秋、冬季节取食种类和多样性指数分别为20种(3.93)、19种(3.73)、21种(3.87)和25种(4.12)。在秦岭南坡川金丝猴的食物组成中,地衣占总觅食记录的22%;树叶占20%,其中嫩叶9%和成熟叶11%;种子、树皮、芽苞、果实和叶柄分别占16%、15%、11%、 9%和7%。该猴群觅取的植物部位具有明显的季节性差异。春季,对树皮和芽苞的觅食量较高,分别为28%和25%;夏季,增加了对成熟叶的采食量(29%),而减少了芽苞的觅取量(5%);秋季,以取食种子和果实为主,分别占总觅食的48% 和16%;冬季,地衣的采食量达到最大值（41%）。觅食的食物组成与食物的可获得性呈正相关性(R = 0.984, P < 0.01),这与大多数叶猴的适应策略类似,在喜食食物短缺的冬季,它们选择更多的地衣和树皮为食,同时它们采食的种类和食物多样性也有相应增加。     

Variations in diet composition of sympatric Trachypithecus francoisi and Macaca assamensis in the limestone habitats of Nonggang,China

Comparative studies of sympatric species are essential for understanding behavioral and ecological adaptation as well as the mechanisms that can reduce resource competition to allow coexistence.Fran?ois' langurs(Trachypithecus francoisi) and Assamese macaques(Macaca assamensis) are sympatric primate species found in the limestone seasonal rainforests of Nonggang Nature Reserve,southwestern Guangxi, China. To explore their different adaptation strategies, we collected data on diet using scan sampling at 15-min intervals. Our results revealed that Fran?ois' langurs showed a more flexible diet composition than Assamese macaques.Fran?ois' langurs increased dietary diversity and mature leaf consumption in response to seasonal scarcity of preferred young leaves and fruits, whereas Assamese macaques relied heavily on young bamboo leaves(Indocalamus calcicolus) in most months.These variations reflect the differences in digestive physiology, morphology, and the temporal and spatial distribution of food resources.     

喀斯特石山生境中熊猴的雨季食物组成

开展食物组成研究为人们了解灵长类对栖息地的反应提供了很好的途径,对深刻理解动物的行为可塑性及适应性具有重要意义。猕猴属(Macaca)为果食性灵长类,但是不同种类的食性差异很大;即使便同一物种,其不同地理种群也因其栖息环境不同,食物组成存在差异。一般说来,热带地区的种类比生活在较高纬度的种类采食更多的果实。于2012年7—9月,采用瞬时扫描法对广西弄岗自然保护区石山中的两群熊猴(Macaca assamensis)进行了跟踪和观察,对猴群的雨季食物组成及其日时段变化规律进行了研究。结果表明:研究期间熊猴共采食45种植物,其中乔木30种,灌木3种,藤本11种,草本1种。平均每月采食植物22.3种。嫩叶和果实是熊猴的主要食物,分别占食物组成的52.4%和46.1%(其中未成熟果实占21.3%,成熟果实占24.8%)。另外,花占食物组成的0.9%,成熟叶和其它部位分别占0.3%。石山特有植物芸香竹(Bonia saxatilis)的嫩叶提供了43.8%的食物。9种主要植物分别占食物组成的2%,共为猴群提供了85.5%的食物。分析还发现熊猴并不是严格按照环境中的植物生物量来选择食物。嫩叶在弄岗熊猴的食物中的比例高于其他地理种群,而果实低于其他地理种群,这可能与喀斯特石山中果实的丰富度和可利用性较低有关。熊猴一天中不同时间段的食物组成并不相同,主要表现在:熊猴上午时间段对成熟果实和总果实的采食比例高于下午时间段,而嫩叶的采食比例低于下午时间段。另外,不同时间段的食物组成受外界温度的影响,表现为温度与嫩叶的觅食比例成正比,与成熟果实和总果实的觅食比例成反比。这可能与猴群采取的能量平衡策略有关。对熊猴的食物组成的日时段变化规律进行首次报道,研究结果将有助于深入理解熊猴对喀斯特石山生境的适应策略。     

白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴的食性

2008 年6 月至2009 年5 月,采用扫描瞬时取样法对云南白马雪山自然保护区响古箐滇金丝猴群的食性进行了研究。研究表明,该滇金丝猴群的食物主要由42 个科105 种植物组成。滇金丝猴全年的食物构成如下:松萝50.6% ,成熟叶16.3% ,果实/种子10.5% , 嫩叶8.4% ,竹笋7.9% , 芽3.0% , 花1.9% ,树皮/ 叶柄/茎0.8% ,真菌类0.5% 。研究还表明,滇金丝猴的食谱具有一定的季节性:即夏季取食的植物种类最多,冬季取食的植物种类最少,嫩叶是滇金丝猴春季的主要食物,而果实/ 种子在响古箐的滇金丝猴秋季食物中占有重要的比重。此外,发现竹笋是滇金丝猴夏季的主要食物资源。研究还发现,除松萝以外,对其食物贡献率最大的10科植物的比重达到39.6%,而蔷薇科的取食则高达17.57% ,表明响古箐滇金丝猴对不同种类的食物具有明显的选择性。以上结果表明,响古箐滇金丝猴的取食行为受食物资源季节性变化的影响。     

Interannual variation in food choice of white‐headed langur inhabiting limestone forests in Fusui,southwest Guangxi,China

Food habits are important factors in the adaptation of wild nonhuman primates. White‐headed langurs (Trachypithecus leucocephalus) are endemic to heavily fragmented limestone forests and adapt to unique living environments via flexible food selection strategies. In this study, we compared the dietary data for white‐headed langurs living in Chongzuo White‐headed Langur National Nature Reserve in 2013 and 2016 to evaluate interannual variations in diet. Our results indicated that young leaves were the main food source for langurs, accounting for 52.4% (SD 25.4%) and 65.2% (SD 22.4%) of their diet in 2013 and 2016, respectively. The pattern of plant part consumption was similar between the two years. The consumption of young leaves varied with the availability of young leaves, whereas the consumption of mature leaves was negatively correlated with young leaf availability. The consumption of plant species and diet diversity were higher in 2013 than in 2016. In both 2013 and 2016, although diet diversity varied with the consumption of mature leaves, it was negatively correlated with the consumption and availability of young leaves. Dietary interannual variation is likely to either be linked to phenological variations or indicate that white‐headed langurs have a flexible ecological adaptation coping with habitat fragmentation.     

A nutritional analysis of foraging in the Malabar giant squirrel (Ratufa indica)

The effect of nutrients and their availability on the diet of the herbivorous Malabar giant squirrel Ratufa indica (Sciuridae) was investigated at Magod and Bhimashankar in western India. The daily consumption of food items (percent wet diet) and the intake rates of these items and the contained nutrients (wet g s^-1) were determined by continuous observation of focal animals. Water content was a significant positive predictor of relative food item consumption while mineral contents in general had the opposite effect. The intake rates of water and more digestible nutrients such as nonstructural carbohydrates, as well as the intake rate of minerals such as zinc (at Magod), were significant positive predictors of the relative contribution of an item to the daily diet, thus indicating considerations of feeding costs versus benefits. Tannins, some alkaloids, and other secondary metabolites may negatively influence food choice. Protein content, relative to digestibility reducers, influenced food item consumption only at Bhimashankar. There was seasonal variation in daily biomass consumption. At Bhimashankar, daily biomass consumption increased with the proportion of fruit in the diet while this did not occur at Magod. This is perhaps a result of the higher water content and the lower content of some soluble nutrients within fruit at Bhimashankar relative to Magod. There was also intra-month variation between individual squirrels in daily biomass of food consumed. Squirrels consumed ephemeral food items opportunistically and non-ephemeral items such as mature leaves and bark on a regular daily basis. Squirrels probably obtained minerals and nitrogen from both fruit (especially seeds) and non-fruit sources (mature leaves and bark in the case of minerals, young and mature leaves in the case of nitrogen). However, they obtained lipid and non-structural carbohydrates mostly from fruit. Squirrels were selective in their utilization of tree species on a monthly basis, but this selectivity was not evident over a longer time period because individuals were constrained to use different phenological stages of tree species present within their territories. Large body size in this squirrel permits dietary flexibility and enables an overall generalist feeding strategy.     

Diet and Food Choice of Trachypithecus francoisi in the Nonggang Nature Reserve, China

We studied the diet and food choice of 1 group of Fran?ois’ langurs (Trachypithecus francoisi) from August 2003 to July 2004 in the Nonggang Nature Reserve, Guangxi province, China. The langurs consumed 90 plant species, including 14 unidentified species. Leaves constituted 52.8% of the diet (38.9% young leaves and 13.9% mature leaves). Fruits and seeds accounted for 17.2% and 14.2%, respectively. Flowers and other items—including petioles, stems, roots, and bark—contributed to 7.5% and 7.4% of the diet, respectively. The langur diet varied according to season. They fed on more young leaves from April to September. Consumption of seeds, petioles, and stems increased between October and March, when young leaves were scarce. The diet shift corresponded to higher dietary diversity during the young leaf-lean period. Though the langurs fed on many plant species, 10 species accounted for 62.2% of the diet, only 2 of which were among the 10 most common tree species in vegetation quadrants, and the percentage of feeding records on a plant species and the percentage of individuals of the species in vegetation quadrants does not correlate significantly. Fran?ois’ langurs fed selectively, and they did not base their diet simply on the abundance of plant species in the habitat.     

Diet of the red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) in French Guiana

We report the feeding behavior and food preferences of a troop of red howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus) over two annual cycles in primary tropical rain forest in French Guiana. The monkeys used 195 plant species from 47 families as food. Major food categories were young leaves (54%), mature fruits (21.5%), and flowers (12.6%). Other food categories included old leaves, immature fruits, termitarium soil, bark, and moss. The monkeys were less selective than other howler groups, since 19 plant species contributed 1% to their diet and accounted for only 35.7% of their total diet. The Sapotaceae was the most frequently eaten plant family and represented >10% of the total diet.     

Diet of a Japanese Macaque Troop in the Coniferous Forest of Yakushima

I studied the diet of a troop of Japanese macaques in the coniferous forest of Yakushima over one year via focal animal sampling. Fiber-rich foods constituted 45% of annual feeding time, and mature leaves constituted 38% of total feeding time. Feeding time on fruits and seeds was only 13% and 4%, respectively. Flowers and fungi contributed a considerable amount of annual feeding time: 15% and 14%, respectively. Their diet changed seasonally. They fed on more fruits and seeds in response to increased availability, and when these foods were not available, they ate mature leaves. When the temperature was low, they ate more herbs, possibly to save energy by not climbing trees and staying in sunny places. The results imply two dietary characteristics of the species that might relate to adaptations in temperate regions, where fruit is available during a limited season and fiber-rich foods are the only candidate of fallback food. They are capable of digesting a large amount of fiber-rich food, but at the same time they preferentially select high-quality fruits or seeds when they are available.     

Diet and feeding behavior of Rhinopithecus brelichi at Yangaoping, Guizhou

Expectations of increases in human population growth and accelerated habitat loss, along with the realization that efforts to provide protection for ecosystems that sustain primates have met with limited success, make it critical that conservation plans are grounded firmly in scientific observation. Studies of the diet breadth and feeding behavior of endangered species, therefore, are critical for understanding ecological adaptations and developing a conservation strategy. The diet and feeding ecology of gray snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus brelichi) were studied in the Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve, Guizhou, China. The monkeys were found to consume 107 different species of trees, shrubs, and ground plants from 58 genera and 28 families. Food items included young leaves, mature leaves, flowers, fruits/seeds, buds, and insects. Among these food items, there were at least 13 evergreen species of tree and liana, 3 species of grasses, and at least 2 kinds of invertebrates collected from decayed wood. Diet varied markedly throughout different seasons. Overall, diet composition (based on feeding records) was 15.3% buds, 25.5% young leaves, 21.8% mature leaves, 9.4% flowers, 21.6% fruits/seeds, and 6.3% other items. The monkeys feed mainly on young leaves and flowers in spring, unripe fruits/seeds and young leaves in summer, ripe fruits/seeds in autumn, and mature leaves and buds in winter. We propose that when inhabiting forests of lower elevation and greater vegetation complexity, R. brelichi is characterized by expanded diet breadth and includes a greater diversity of food types and plant species in its diet. One food type that appears critical to the diet of this species, especially during the winter, are the buds of Magnolia sprengeri. To protect this resource we advocate working with local communities to limit the collection of M. sprengeri, which is used in traditional Chinese medicine and has high economic value for people in the reserve.