Diet of black guillemots and northern fulmars breeding beside a High Arctic polynya

In the Arctic, the availability of early-season open water (shore leads, polynyas) is a key factor influencing annual reproduction by marine birds, as these relatively productive locations provide the only sites where migrating and breeding birds can feed. We examined the diet of two marine birds, black guillemots (Cepphus grylle) and northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis), feeding in the Hell Gate–Cardigan Strait Polynya in the Canadian High Arctic during the breeding seasons of 1980–1984. There was little overlap in prey items consumed between these two species, except that both relied on similar sympagic amphipods. Guillemots fed principally on benthic prey, and compared to earlier High Arctic studies, they consumed proportionally more benthic fish, mysids and decapods. Fulmars appeared to feed on swarms of pelagic or surface prey, and in this polynya they consumed proportionally fewer fish and more polychaetes than has been reported for fulmars at other High Arctic locations. Given that climate change may alter marine food webs by changing the types and availability of prey, our results set a baseline of dietary information for these predators against which future conditions can be compared.     

Influence of bill and foot morphology on the ectoparasites of barn owls

Preening is the principle behavioral defense used by birds to combat ectoparasites. Most birds have a small overhang at the tip of their bills that is used to shear through the tough cuticle of ectoparasitic arthropods, making preening much more efficient. Birds may also scratch with their feet to defend against ectoparasites. This is particularly important for removing ectoparasites on the head, which birds cannot preen. Scratching may be enhanced by the comb-like serrations that are found on the claws of birds in many avian families. We examined the prevalence and intensity of ectoparasites of barn owls (Tyto alba pratincola) in southern Idaho in relation to bill hook length and morphological characteristics of the pectinate claw. The barn owls in our study were infested with 3 species of lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera): Colpocephalum turbinatum , Kurodaia subpachygaster, and Strigiphilus aitkeni . Bill hook length was associated with the prevalence of these lice. Owls with longer hooks were more likely to be infested with lice. Conventional wisdom suggests that the bill morphology of raptors has been shaped by selection for efficient foraging; our data suggest that hook morphology may also play a role in ectoparasite defense. The number of teeth on the pectinate claw was also associated with the prevalence of lice. Owls that had claws with more teeth were less likely to be infested with lice, which suggests that larger pectinate claws may offer relatively more protection against ectoparasitic lice. Experiments that manipulate the bill hook and pectinate claw are needed to confirm whether these host characters are involved in ectoparasite defense. Finally, we recovered mammalian ectoparasites from 4 barn owls. We recovered species of mammalian lice (Phthiraptera:Anoplura) and fleas (Siphonaptera) that are commonly found on microtine rodents. The owls probably acquired these parasites from recently eaten prey. This represents 1 of the few documented cases of parasites "straggling" from prey to predator.     

Impact of feather molt on ectoparasites: looks can be deceiving

Animals possess a variety of well-documented defenses against ectoparasites, including morphological, behavioral, and immune responses. Another possible defense that has received relatively little attention is the shedding of the host's exterior. The conventional wisdom is that ectoparasite abundance is reduced when birds molt their feathers, mammals molt their hair, and reptiles shed their skin. We carried out an experimental test of this hypothesis for birds by manipulating molt in feral pigeons (Columba livia) infested with feather lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera). We used two standard methods, visual examination and body washing, to quantify the abundance of lice on the birds. The visual data indicated a significant effect of molt on lice. However, the more robust body washing method showed that molt had no effect on louse abundance. Two factors caused visual examination to underestimate the number of lice on molting birds. First, molt replaces worn feathers with new, lush plumage that obscures lice during visual examination. Second, we discovered that lice actively seek refuge inside the sheath that encases developing feathers, where the lice cannot be seen. The apparent reduction in louse abundance caused by these factors may account for the conventional wisdom that feather molt reduces ectoparasite abundance in birds. In light of our experimental results, we argue that it is necessary to reinterpret the conclusions of previous studies that were based on observational data. Additional experiments are needed to test whether shedding of the host's exterior reduces ectoparasites in other birds, mammals, and reptiles, similar to the impact of facultative leaf drop on herbivorous insects on trees.

     

Influence of weather on reproductive success of northern fulmars in the Canadian high Arctic

The northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) is a common seabird of the North Atlantic Ocean, with breeding colonies broadly dispersed between 45°N and 80°N. At higher latitudes, breeding fulmars experience extensive sea-ice and presumably snow and low temperatures which do not affect fulmars in the southern part of the breeding range. We studied the relationship between weather and reproductive success of northern fulmars breeding at two colonies in the Canadian high Arctic. Collectively, hatching success, fledging success, and productivity (chicks fledged per egg laid) were similar between our study and results from colonies located south of the Arctic. However, a larger proportion of fulmars at apparently occupied sites (AOS) in high Arctic colonies appeared to forego egg-laying, resulting in lower proportions of chicks fledged per AOS. Extreme inclement weather was the major factor influencing nesting success, resulting in pulses of egg or chick loss during or immediately following major storms, although the mechanism of effects appeared to differ between the two colonies. For Arctic fulmars, the risks of nest failure due to stochastic, deleterious weather events may be offset by the predictable abundance of food supplies during chick-rearing in Arctic waters.     

Chewing lice from high‐altitude and migrating birds in Yunnan,China, with descriptions of two new species of Guimaraesiella

In total, 366 birds representing 55 species in 24 families and eight orders, were examined for chewing lice (Phthiraptera: Amblycera, Ischnocera) in two high‐altitude localities in Yunnan Province, China. In Ailaoshan, almost all of the birds examined were resident passeriforms, of which 36% were parasitized by chewing lice. In Jinshanyakou, most birds were on migration, and included both passerine and non‐passerine birds. Of the passerine birds caught in Jinshanyakou, only one bird (0.7%) was parasitized by chewing lice. The prevalence of Myrsidea and Brueelia‐complex lice on birds caught in Ailaoshan was higher than in previous reports. Of the chewing lice identifiable to species level, three represent new records for China: Actornithophilus hoplopteri (Mjöberg, 1910), Maculinirmus ljosalfar Gustafsson & Bush, 2017 and Quadraceps sinensis Timmermann, 1954. In total, 17 new host records are included, of which we describe two as new species in the Brueelia‐complex: Guimaraesiella (Cicchinella) ailaoshanensis sp. nov. ex Schoeniparus dubius dubius (Hume, 1874) and G. (C.) montisodalis sp. nov. ex Fulvetta manipurensis tonkinensis Delacour & Jabouille, 1930. This published work has been registered in ZooBank, http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:9FC3D8EE‐2CED‐4DBE‐A1DB‐471B71260D27 .     

Populations and trends of Canadian Arctic seabirds

Canada’s eastern Arctic (Nunavut and Arctic Quebec—Nunavik, N of 60°) supports large numbers of seabirds in summer. Seabird breeding habitat in this region includes steep, rocky coasts and low-lying coasts backed by lowland sedge-meadow tundra. The former areas support colonial cliff- and scree-nesting seabirds, such as murres and fulmars; the latter inland or coastal seabirds, such as terns, gulls and jaegers. The region supports some 4 million breeding seabirds, of which the most numerous are thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia; 75%), black guillemots (Cepphus grylle; 9%), northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis; 8%) and black-legged kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla; 6%). The majority of Arctic seabirds breed in a small number of very large colonies (>10,000 birds), but there are also substantial numbers of non-colonial or small-colony breeding populations that are scattered more widely (e.g. terns, guillemots). Population trends among Canadian Arctic seabirds over the past few decades have been variable, with no strongly negative trends except for the rare ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea): this contrasts with nearby Greenland, where several species have shown steep declines. Although current seabird trends raise only small cause for concern, climate amelioration may enable increased development activities in the north, potentially posing threats to some seabirds on their breeding grounds.     

Autumn migration and wintering of northern fulmars (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fulmarus glacialis</Emphasis>) from the Canadian high Arctic

Five northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) were tracked by satellite transmitters from their breeding colony in the Canadian high Arctic (Cape Vera, Devon Island, NT) to their wintering grounds in the northwest Atlantic Ocean. In both 2004 and 2005, fulmars left northern Baffin Bay in mid- to late September, and migrated south to Davis Strait in less than 1 week, after which movements were erratic. In October and November, the birds were widely distributed, but by December through March, they tended to remain in the Labrador Sea between 50 and 55°N. Average flight speed was 35 km/h with a maximum of 64 km/h, and over their entire transmission periods, the five traveled on average 84 km/day. Our work suggests that the North Atlantic northern fulmar population may be panmictic in winter, with the Labrador Sea as a key wintering site for fulmars from high Arctic Canada.     

Phylogeny and classification, origins, and evolution of host associations of lice

Lice are highly successful ectoparasites. Most species of mammals and birds are infested by at least 1 but up to 6 species of lice. Current opinion is that lice evolved from free-living Psocoptera (booklice, barklice and psocids). It is generally agreed that there are 4 main groups of lice: Anoplura, Amblycera, Ischnocera and Rhyncophthirina. In contrast, there is no agreement on the phylogenetic relationships of these groups and their classification. In particular, there is much debate over the validity of the taxon Mallophaga, which is almost certainly paraphyletic. For many years the sister-group of the Boopiidae, which almost exclusively infest Australasian marsupials, was thought to be a group of lice that now infest marsupials in South America. This, however, is almost certainly incorrect; the sister-group of the Boopiidae probably contains bird-infesting lice from the Menoponidae (Amblycera). Thus, menoponid lice transferred from birds to mammals and from these arose the Boopiidae. Transfers of lice between mammals and birds have occurred on other occasions during the evolution of the lice; 2 of the 4 main groups of lice, the Ischnocera and Amblycera, contain families that infest birds and families that infest mammals. Strict cospeciation and coevolution was thought to predominate among the lice; however, detailed studies indicate this to be incorrect. Consequently, the axiom that lice and their hosts invariably coevolve should be abandoned. Ironically, biologists may learn more about the evolutionary biology of hosts when host-switching has occurred. Some evidence exists for competition between species of lice; this interaction may determine whether or not the transfer of a species of louse to an atypical hose (a potential host-switch) is successful. Thus, the extincion of populations of lice (that result in uninfested hosts) may facilitate host-switching and perhaps the evolution of new taxa of lice. In contrast, extinction of hosts unfortunately often leads to the extinction of species of lice.     

External parasites of raptors (Falconiformes and Strigiformes): identification in an ex situ population from Mexico

Raptorial birds harbor a variety of ectoparasites and the mayority of them are host specific. The aim of this study was to identify the ectoparasites of captive birds of prey from Mexico, as well as to verify their impact in the health of infested birds. Raptorial birds were confiscated and kept in captivity at the Centro de Investigación y Conservación de Vida Silvestre (CIVS) in Los Reyes La Paz, Mexico State. Seventy-four birds of prey (66 Falconiformes and eigth Strigiformes) of 15 species were examined for the presence of ectoparasites. We examined both juvenile and adult birds from both sexes. The overall prevalence was 16.2%; 66.7% of raptors were infested with a single type of external parasite. Lice were the most prevalent ectoparasites (91.7%), followed by feather mites and fleas (8.3%). Degeeriella fulva (72.7%), Craspedorrhynchus sp. (45.4%) and Strigiphilus aitkeni (9.1%) (Ischnocera, Philopteridae) were recovered from wings, head and neck regions of red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), Swainson's hawk (B. swainsoni), Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) and Barn owl (Tyto alba). Low lice infestation level was observed. Nymphs and females of feather mites Kramerella sp. (Pterolichoidea, Kramerellidae) were recovered solely from Barn owl (T. alba); while one Caracara (Caracara cheriway) was infested by the sticktight flea Echidnophaga gallinacea (Siphonaptera, Pulicidae). No clinical signs were observed in any infested bird. Probably the periodic use of organophosphorates was responsible of the low prevalence and lice infestation levels. The diversity of external parasites illustrates the importance of detailed revision of incoming and long-term captive raptors as part of responsible captive management. Five new hosts and geographic records are presented.     

Phoretic dispersal influences parasite population genetic structure

Dispersal is a fundamental component of the life history of most species. Dispersal influences fitness, population dynamics, gene flow, genetic drift and population genetic structure. Even small differences in dispersal can alter ecological interactions and trigger an evolutionary cascade. Linking such ecological processes with evolutionary patterns is difficult, but can be carried out in the proper comparative context. Here, we investigate how differences in phoretic dispersal influence the population genetic structure of two different parasites of the same host species. We focus on two species of host‐specific feather lice (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) that co‐occur on feral rock pigeons (Columba livia). Although these lice are ecologically very similar, “wing lice” (Columbicola columbae) disperse phoretically by “hitchhiking” on pigeon flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), while “body lice” (Campanulotes compar) do not. Differences in the phoretic dispersal of these species are thought to underlie observed differences in host specificity, as well as the degree of host–parasite cospeciation. These ecological and macroevolutionary patterns suggest that body lice should exhibit more genetic differentiation than wing lice. We tested this prediction among lice on individual birds and among lice on birds from three pigeon flocks. We found higher levels of genetic differentiation in body lice compared to wing lice at two spatial scales. Our results indicate that differences in phoretic dispersal can explain microevolutionary differences in population genetic structure and are consistent with macroevolutionary differences in the degree of host–parasite cospeciation.     

Insect ectoparasites on wild birds in the Czech Republic during the pre-breeding period

Wild passerine birds (Passeriformes) from the northeastern part of the Czech Republic were examined for ectoparasites during the pre-breeding period in 2007. Two species of fleas of the genera Ceratophyllus and Dasypsyllus (Siphonaptera: Ceratophyllidae), and 23 species of chewing lice belonging to the genera Ricinus, Myrsidea, Menacanthus (Phthiraptera: Menoponidae), Brueelia, Penenirmus, and Philopterus (Phthiraptera: Philopteridae) were found on 108 birds of 16 species. Distribution of insect ectoparasites found on wild birds during pre-breeding was compared with previous data from the post-breeding period. There was no difference in total prevalence of chewing lice in pre-breeding and post-breeding periods. Higher prevalence of fleas and slightly higher mean intensity of chewing lice were found on birds during the pre-breeding period. There was a significant difference in total prevalence but equal mean intensity of chewing lice on resident and migrating birds.     

Prebasic molt initiation and progress in northern fulmars of the High Arctic: do molt and breeding overlap?

We examined feather molt progress of northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) at Cape Vera in the Canadian High Arctic through opportunistic observation of individuals in flight from 2003 to 2006, and examination of bodies and wings of 127 individuals collected at the site, from 2003 to 2005. We found no evidence suggesting that fulmars shed primary feathers during breeding. Prebasic molt was initiated in the head, neck, sides, belly and back approximately 1 week before hatch. We failed to detect a sex effect on molt progress, but molt among breeders was delayed compared to molt in non- or failed breeders. This study constitutes a baseline we feel may be useful to: (1) researchers interested in feather replacement chronology, wherein feathers are used as sources of biological information; and (2) researchers interested in eventual assessment of relationships among large-scale environmental processes and molt progress in this species, especially in light of predicted changes to Arctic regions.     

Tick infestation on birds in an urban Atlantic Forest fragment in north-eastern Brazil

Birds are important hosts for various tick species, playing a significant role in their biological life cycle and dispersion. In this study, we investigated tick infestations on birds trapped in an urban remnant of Atlantic Forest in Pernambuco state, Brazil. From February 2015 to March 2017, 541 birds belonging to 52 species were trapped with mist nets and examined for ectoparasites. Birds trapped in the late successional forest were significantly more infested than birds trapped in the early successional forest. In the same way, ectoparasite infestation varied significantly according to bird weight and collection plot. Overall, 198 birds (36.6%) belonging to 27 species were parasitized by ectoparasites (i.e., ticks, lice and/or mites). Ectoparasites were effectively collected from 111 birds, of which 99 belonging to 20 species were infested by ticks (n?=?261), namely, Amblyomma longirostre (13 nymphs), Amblyomma nodosum (21 nymphs), Amblyomma varium (one nymph), and Amblyomma spp. (five nymphs and 221 larvae). Most of the ticks (>?90%) were collected from Passeriformes. This study provides the second record of A. varium in Pernambuco state and confirms that birds, especially Passeriformes, are important hosts for larvae and nymphs of Amblyomma spp. in the Atlantic Forest biome of Pernambuco.

     

Chewing Lice of Swan Geese (Anser cygnoides): New Host-Parasite Associations

Chewing lice (Phthiraptera) that parasitize the globally threatened swan goose Anser cygnoides have been long recognized since the early 19th century, but those records were probably biased towards sampling of captive or domestic geese due to the small population size and limited distribution of its wild hosts. To better understand the lice species parasitizing swan geese that are endemic to East Asia, we collected chewing lice from 14 wild geese caught at 3 lakes in northeastern Mongolia. The lice were morphologically identified as 16 Trinoton anserinum (Fabricius, 1805), 11 Ornithobius domesticus Arnold, 2005, and 1 Anaticola anseris (Linnaeus, 1758). These species are known from other geese and swans, but all of them were new to the swan goose. This result also indicates no overlap in lice species between older records and our findings from wild birds. Thus, ectoparasites collected from domestic or captive animals may provide biased information on the occurrence, prevalence, host selection, and host-ectoparasite interactions from those on wild hosts.     

Evaluation of two methods for quantifying passeriform lice

Two methods commonly used to quantify ectoparasites on live birds are visual examination and dust‐ruffling. Visual examination provides an estimate of ectoparasite abundance based on an observer's timed inspection of various body regions on a bird. Dust‐ruffling involves application of insecticidal powder to feathers that are then ruffled to dislodge ectoparasites onto a collection surface where they can then be counted. Despite the common use of these methods in the field, the proportion of actual ectoparasites they account for has only been tested with Rock Pigeons (Columba livia), a relatively large‐bodied species (238–302 g) with dense plumage. We tested the accuracy of the two methods using European Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris; ～75 g). We first quantified the number of lice (Brueelia nebulosa) on starlings using visual examination, followed immediately by dust‐ruffling. Birds were then euthanized and the proportion of lice accounted for by each method was compared to the total number of lice on each bird as determined with a body‐washing method. Visual examination and dust‐ruffling each accounted for a relatively small proportion of total lice (14% and 16%, respectively), but both were still significant predictors of abundance. The number of lice observed by visual examination accounted for 68% of the variation in total abundance. Similarly, the number of lice recovered by dust‐ruffling accounted for 72% of the variation in total abundance. Our results show that both methods can be used to reliably quantify the abundance of lice on European Starlings and other similar‐sized passerines.     

Major ectoparasites of cattle in and around Mekelle, northern Ethiopia

Studies on the identification of major ectoparasites of cattle in and around Mekelle in northern Ethiopia were carried out from November 2006 to June 2007. Ectoparasite prevalence, infestation, and the possible risks associated with ectoparasites were investigated. Data collected were analyzed using the χ²‐test. A total of 849 cattle were examined: 40.2% (341), 53.2% (452) and 5.9% (50) were infested with ticks, lice and Demodex, respectively. A positive correlation was observed between prevalence and production system and breed of cattle. The results also revealed widespread occurrence of ectoparasites that have affected the general health and productivity of cattle in the study area. Seven different species of ticks were found on the cattle, with some capable of transmitting pathogens harmful to both cattle and humans.     

Mitochondrial DNA data imply a stepping‐stone colonization of Beringia by arctic warbler Phylloscopus borealis

Arctic warbler Phylloscopus borealis is one of several high‐latitude Passerines which are widely distributed across one northern continent but restricted to the Beringian part of the other. Most species with such asymmetric intercontinental ranges are monomorphic across Beringia, suggesting either recent colonization of the second continent or considerable gene flow across the Bering Strait. Arctic warbler is the only migratory species in this group that has three different subspecies in Beringia: Ph. b. borealis (Scandinavia to western Beringia, south to Mongolia), Ph. b. xanthodryas (Japan, Sakhalin, Kamchatka, western Beringia), and Ph. b. kennicotti (Alaska). This polymorphism may indicate that Arctic warbler has a unique and complex phylogeographic history that differs significantly from other species with similar ranges. Our analyses of complete mtDNA ND2 sequences of 88 Arctic warblers collected across the species range showed that the clade comprised of birds breeding on Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula diverged from the Palearctic/Beringian clade by 3.8% in ND2 sequence. Beringian birds formed a recently derived clade embedded within the Palearctic clade. Nucleotide diversity declined sharply eastward from Palearctic to western Beringia and then to eastern Beringia. Our data provided no support for currently recognized subspecies. They suggested that the barrier at the western edge of Beringia was crossed by Arctic warbler earlier than the Bering Strait resulting in a stepping‐stone colonization of Beringia by this species. Gene flow appears to be restricted across the western border of Beringia but not the Bering Strait.     

Determinants of ectoparasite assemblage structure on rodent hosts from South American marshlands: the effect of host species,locality and season

The relative effects of host species identity, locality and season on ectoparasite assemblages (relative abundances and species richness) harboured by four cricetid rodent hosts (Akodon azarae, Oligoryzomys flavescens, Oxymycterus rufus and Scapteromys aquaticus) were assessed across six closely located sites in Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Relative abundances of ectoparasites (14 species including gamasid mites, an ixodid tick, a trombiculid mite, lice and fleas), as well as total ectoparasite abundance and species richness, were determined mainly by host species and to a lesser extent by locality (despite the small spatial scale of the study), whereas seasonal effect was weak, albeit significant. The abundances of some ectoparasites were determined solely by host, whereas those of other ectoparasites (sometimes belonging to the same higher taxon) were also affected by locality and/or season. In gamasids, there was a significant effect of locality for some species, but not for others. In fleas and lice, the effect of locality was similar in different species, suggesting that this effect is related to the characteristic life history strategy.     

Basal ischnoceran louse phylogeny (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera: Goniodidae and Heptapsogasteridae)

A phylogenetic analysis of generic relationships for avian chewing lice of families Goniodidae and Heptapsogasteridae (Phthiraptera: Ischnocera) is presented. These lice, hosted by galliform, columbiform and tinamiform birds are reputedly basal in the phylogeny of Ischnocera. A cladistic analysis of sixty‐two adult morphological characters from thirty‐one taxa revealed thirty equally parsimonious cladograms. The phylogeny is well resolved within Heptap‐sogasteridae and supports the monophyly of subfamily Strongylocotinae (sensu Eichler 1963 ). Resolution within Goniodidae is lower but suggests that the genera hosted by Columbiformes are largely monophyletic. Mapping host taxonomy on to the phylogeny of the lice reveals a consistent pattern which is largely congruent down to the rank of host family, although at lower taxonomic levels the association appears to be more complex. The inclusion of more louse taxa may help considerably to unravel the coevolutionary history of both the hosts and their parasites.     

Comprehensive investigation of ectoparasite community and abundance across life history stages of avian host

Fitness consequences of ectoparasitism are expressed over the lifetime of their hosts in relation to variation in composition and abundance of the entire ectoparasite community and across all host life history stages. However, most empirical studies have focused on parasite species-specific effects and only during some life history stages. We conducted a systematic, year-long survey of an ectoparasite community in a wild population of house finches Carpodacus mexicanus Müller in south-western Arizona, with a specific focus on ecological and behavioral correlates of ectoparasite prevalence and abundance. We investigated five ectoparasite species: two feather mite genera – both novel for house finches – Strelkoviacarus (Analgidae) and Dermoglyphus (Dermoglyphidae), the nest mite Pellonyssus reedi (Macronyssidae), and the lice Menacanthus alaudae (Menoponidae) and Ricinus microcephalus (Ricinidae). Mite P. reedi and louse Menacanthus alaudae abundance peaked during host breeding season, especially in older birds, whereas feather mite abundance peaked during molt. Overall, breeding birds had more P. reedi than non-breeders, molting males had greater abundance of feather mites than molting females and non-molting males, and young males had more feather mites than older males. We discuss these results in relation to natural history of ectoparasites under study and suggest that ectoparasites might synchronize their life cycles to those of their hosts. Pronounced differences in relative abundance of ectoparasite species among host's life history stages have important implications for evolution of parasite-specific host defenses.