Role of dietary oleic acid from two different sources on fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membrane and blood pressure in healthy subjects

This study has been undertaken to determine the effect of a diet enriched with olive oil (OO) and high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) on fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membrane phospholipids and blood pressure in healthy women. OO and HOSO were used as natural sources of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) in a random-order sequence over two 4-week periods with a 4-week washout period between both MUFA diets. HOSO diet resulted in significant increases in oleic [(18:1n-9) 8.6%, P < 0.001], eicosenoic [(20:1n-9) 33.3%, P < 0.05], arachidonic [(20:4n-6) 6.2%, P < 0.05], and docosapentaenoic [(22:5n-6) 56.0%, P < 0.001] acids, whereas OO diet besides increased the content of stearic acid [(18:0) 13.6%, P < 0.01] and long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) of the n-3 family (22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3), when compared with the baseline [a diet high in saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and low in MUFAs]. In contrast, there was a significant decrease in linoleic acid [(18:2n-6) 21.8%, P < 0.001] for both MUFA diets. Consistent with these data, dietary intake of OO significantly raised total PUFAs (7.2%, P < 0.05), the n-3 fatty acids (22.2%, P < 0.01) and the PUFAs/SFAs ratio (9.3%, P < 0.01), as well as decreased the ratio of cholesterol to phospholipids (26,1%, P < 0.001) versus HOSO-based diet. Interestingly, dietary OO, but not HOSO, was able to significantly reduce the systolic (3%, P < 0.05) and diastolic (4%, P < 0.05) blood pressures. Although both vegetable oils provided a similar content of MUFAs (mainly oleic acid), our findings rather indicate that OO has important benefits to modulate the fatty acid composition of membranes and the mechanisms involved in the regulation of blood pressure in human.     

Predation by xanthid crabs on early post-settlement gastropods: the role of prey size, prey density, and habitat complexity

Small predators in marine benthic communities create a hazardous environment for newly settled invertebrates, especially for the smallest individuals. To explore the effects of predation on a newly settled gastropod, queen conch (Strombus gigas Linnaeus), by a xanthid crab (Micropanope sp.), prey size, prey density, and habitat complexity were manipulated in five laboratory experiments. All crabs >3.1 mm CW killed all conch <2 mm SL when individual crabs (<14 mm carapace width (CW)) were offered individual conch that were 2–35 days old after metamorphosis (1.2–8.8 mm shell length (SL)). Only 10% of the crabs >5.0 mm CW, however, killed conch that were >5.0 mm SL, suggesting that conch may reach a size refuge from xanthid crabs at 5 mm SL. Furthermore, when given a choice, crabs (4.8 mm CW) preferred smaller conch (2.0 mm SL) to larger (3.7 mm SL), suggesting that 1 week of additional growth in shell length is advantageous to survivorship. Proportional mortality decreased as conch density increased when crabs were offered conch at seven different densities (two to 96 individuals). Crabs proved to be effective predators regardless of the amount of seagrass structure provided in a microcosm experiment, and could consume two conch in 10 s. The high densities of xanthid crabs that occur in the wild, their effectiveness as predators, and their large appetites point to the important role that small predators may potentially play in structuring the population dynamics of their small prey immediately after settlement.     

Modification of lipid-related atherosclerosis risk factors by ω3 fatty acid ethyl esters in hypertriglyceridemic patients

The efficacy of ω3 fatty acid ethyl esters was evaluated in 10 mildly hypertriglyceridemic patients in this randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover trial. Patients were given capsules (1 per 10 kg body weight) containing 640 mg/g of ω3 fatty acids or an olive oil placebo for two 4-week treatment periods separated by a 1-week washout phase. Plasma lipids, lipoproteins, and apolipoproteins: phospholipid FA composition; the susceptibility to oxidation of the apolipoprotein B-100 containing lipoproteins; and bleeding times were determined at the end of each period. Plasma triglyceride levels were reduced by 37% (P < 0.001), whereas low density lipoprotein cholesterol and the cholesterol content of subfraction 2 of high density lipoproteins increased by 23 and 56%, respectively (both P < 0.02). Changes in plasma lipid parameters and in phospholipid FA patterns occurred rapidly, usually stabilizing within 1 week, and returned to baseline levels within 10 days after stopping supplementation with ω3 fatty acids. Bleeding times were not changed. However, the susceptibility of lipoproteins to oxidation was increased during the ω3 fatty acid period. We conclude that ω3 fatty acid ethyl esters are effective hypotriglyceridemic agents, and that they impact lipoprotein metabolism very quickly. How they may alter the atherogenic process is not clear from this study because some risk factors worsened and other improved.     

Effects of Tasco (a seaweed extract) and heat stress on N metabolism and meat fatty acids in wether lambs fed hays containing endophyte-infected fescue

Wether lambs (n = 27, average BW = 40 kg) were used to test response to forage treated with Tasco-Forage (an extract of the brown kelp Ascophyllum nodosum) prior to conserving, or to direct feeding of the extract (Tasco-EX). Hays made from endophyte (Neoyphodium coenophialum)-infested tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea)-based pasture received 0 or 3 kg of Tasco/ha prior to harvest. Lambs, blocked by weight, were randomly allotted to three diets: (1) control hay, (2) treated hay, and (3) #1 + Tasco-EX fed at 1% of the diet. Hays were low in CP (<7%) so all lambs were fed soybean meal (12% of the diet) in addition to trace mineralized salt. Diets were fed at 1.5% BW to prevent refusals. Total collections (7 d) were made during periods without or with applied heat stress. After each period, rumen contents were obtained to determine pH, NH₃ and VFA. Lambs were sacrificed post-trial. A subset was used to evaluate sensory traits and muscle fatty acids. Lambs were in negative N balance during the study and Tasco treatments did not affect N metabolism. Fecal N tended (P < 0.10) to increase with short duration heat stress causing a concomitant decrease (P < 0.05) in apparent N digestibility (58.6 versus 56.1%; S.E. = 0.7). Urinary N loss decreased (P < 0.001) with heat stress (8.0 versus 5.9 g/d; S.E. = 0.2), resulting in increased (P < 0.001) N retention (−2.1 versus −0.3 g/d; S.E. = 0.2). Apparent OM digestibility was not affected by heat stress but was greater (P < 0.05) for lambs fed Tasco-EX treatment than those fed treated hay. Treatment diets decreased (P < 0.05) ruminal butyrate. Heat stress increased (P < 0.05) acetate and total VFA and decreased (P < 0.01) ruminal pH. A tendency (P < 0.11) of increased 14:1ω5, decreased (P < 0.05) 18:0 and total saturated fatty acids in muscle was observed with Tasco diets. Meat sensory characteristics were not affected by treatment. Tasco may alter some aspects of rumen or lipid metabolism but has no effect on N metabolism or meat sensory characteristics of sheep fed restricted, low-quality diets.     

Tissue fatty acid deposition is influenced by an interaction of dietary oil source and energy intake level in rats

To investigate the net tissue fatty acid deposition in response to graded levels of energy restriction and modification of diet fatty acid composition, rats were randomly assigned into four dietary groups and fed for 10 weeks diets containing 40% as energy of either fish, safflower, or olive oil, or beef tallow, consumed ad libitum or energy restricted to 85% or 68% of ad libitum intake by reducing diet carbohydrate content. An additional eight rats were killed before the diet regimen, to provide baseline data from which fatty acid deposition rates were calculated. Body weight, and heart, liver and fat mass gains were decreased with energy restriction (P<0.001). Olive oil feeding resulted in higher body weight gain (P < 0.03) than tallow feeding, whereas fish oil feeding was associated with highest (P < 0.007) liver weight and lowest (P < 0.03) fat mass gains. Energy deficit-related differences in the deposition of stearic, linoleic, arachidonic, and docosahexaenoic acids in heart and palmitic and docosahexaenoic acids in liver were dependent on the dietary oil consumed (P < 0.03). Similarly, interactive effects of restricted food intake and dietary oil type were found in the gain of palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids in adipose tissue (P < 0.01) when expressed in relation to the amount of each fatty acid consumed. These data suggest that energy intake level can influence the deposition pattern, as well as oxidation rate, of tissue fatty acids as a function of tissue type, fatty acid structure, and dietary fatty acid composition.     

Response surface modelling of the production of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids-enriched fats by a commercial immobilized lipase

The aim of this study was to model the production of fats, enriched with ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFA) for nutraceutical purposes, via the response surface methodology. These fats were obtained by transesterification of palm oil stearin (POS) with a concentrate (EPAX 2050TG) of triglycerides enriched with ω-3 PUFA and soybean oil, catalysed by a commercial immobilized Candida antarctica lipase (“Novozym 435”).

The initial water activity (a_w) of the biocatalyst, POS and EPAX 2050TG concentrations, time and temperature showed a significant effect on the transesterification reaction, as well as on the competing reactions of hydrolysis and lipid oxidation.

Depending on the factors included, the transesterification reaction was described either by first- or second-order models.

The production of free fatty acids, which is ascribed both to the hydrolytic reaction and the mechanism of lipase-catalysed transesterification, showed a second-order dependence on the initial a_w of the biocatalyst.     

Stearidonic acid (18:4ω3) in Primula florindae

Stearidonic acid (18:4ω3), which is reported to be of rare occurrence in the plant kingdom and which is of considerable dietary and pharmaceutical interest has been found in three closely related Primula species. It occurs, together with γ-linolenic acid (3–4% of the seed oil total fatty acids), in significant percentages in Primula florindae (11%), P. sikkimensis (14%) and P. alpicola (14%). 18:4(ω3 may also be of chemotaxonomic interest in the genus Primula, as high levels may be typical for section Sikkimensis. The only commercial plant source of stearidonic acid known so far is the seed oil of Ribes nigrum.     

Participation of the microsomal electron transport system involving cytochrome P-450 in ω-oxidation of fatty acids

The participation of the microsomal electron transport system involving cytochrome P-450 in ω-oxidation of fatty acids by a rat liver preparation was examined since ω-oxidation involves microsomal reactions requiring both NADPH and molecular oxygen.

ω-Oxidation of fatty acids was inhibited by CO and by the antibody against NADPH-cytochrome c reductase. The addition to the reaction mixture of drugs which interact with cytochrome P-450 inhibited ω-oxidation. It is concluded that the microsomal electron transport system involving cytochrome P-450 functions in ω-oxidation of fatty acids.     

Analysis of the fixed oils of the genus Nigella L. (Ranunculaceae) in Turkey

The fatty acid composition of fixed oils obtained from the seeds of 10 species of Nigella (Nigella orientalis L., Nigella oxypetala L., Nigella latisecta P.H. Davis, Nigella segetalis Bieb., Nigella arvensis L., Nigella damascena L., Nigella elata Boiss., Nigella nigellastrum (L.) Willk., Nigella unguicularis (Lam.) Spenner, and Nigella lancifolia Hub.-Mor.) from Turkey have been investigated. The seeds contained 17.6–41.3% fixed oils. Linoleic (31.21–69.5%) and oleic acids (15.79–36.03%) were the major fatty acids in the oils. Eicosenoic acid was found in high amounts in the oils of N. nigellastrum and N. unguicularis seeds (23.12 and 17.47%, respectively). N. nigellastrum, N. elata and N. unguicularis seed oils showed the highest concentration of eicosadienoic acid (9.40, 8.39 and 7.17%, respectively). In all fixed oils, the quantities of unsaturated fatty acids were higher than those of the saturated analogues.     

Particle availability controls agglutination in pelagic tintinnids in the Southern Ocean

Mechanisms of particle selectivity controlling agglutination within the agglomerated tintinnid genus Stenosemella spp. Jörgensen were studied during two iron fertilisation experiments (EisenEx and EIFEX) conducted in the Southern Ocean in austral spring 2000 and late austral summer to early autumn 2004. Representative SEM pictures of Stenosemella spp. loricae were taken on the day of fertilisation, during the middle and at the end of both experiments. Whereas during EisenEx particles used for agglutination were unambiguously dominated by coccoliths of Emiliania huxleyi (Lohmann) Hay & Mohle, agglutinated particles during EIFEX mainly consisted of broken diatom frustules (BF) of heavily silicified species. This observation is supported by the ratio of E. huxleyi (Eh)/BF abundances in the water column during both experiments. During EisenEx we observed an Eh/BF ratio which was an order-of-magnitude higher compared to the EIFEX experiment. Thus, our results clearly indicated that particle availability seems to be the driving mechanism in the agglutination of Southern Ocean tintinnids. Furthermore, possible implications for the vertical flux of agglutinated biogenic particles to deep ocean waters and sediments are discussed.     

Lipid content of Verticillium albo-atrum

Light-refractile granules in spores and mycelial cells of Verticillium albo-atrum R. & B. readily stained with Sudan Black B, indicating a marked lipid content. Mycelia contained 8% CHCl₃-methanol extractable material, whereas the spore content was 14 per cent (dry weight basis). GLC analysis showed that the principal fatty acids were palmitic, stearic, and oleic. Increased culture age did not result in any detectable cellular lipid changes. Spores starved in phosphate buffer progressively declined in lipid content.     

Fatty acids as trophic markers of phytoplankton blooms in the Bahía Blanca estuary (Buenos Aires, Argentina) and in Trinity Bay (Newfoundland, Canada)

The fatty acid compositions of phytoplankton and major primary consumers were analyzed during the development of seasonal algal blooms in the Bahía Blanca estuary, situated on the southern coast of the province of Buenos Aires (Argentina), and Trinity Bay, at Sunnyside, on the eastern coast of Newfoundland (Canada). Primary consumers in the Bahía Blanca estuary were zooplankton dominated by the calanoid copepod Acartia tonsa. At Sunnyside, the primary consumers were the sea scallop Placopecten magellanicus, an ecological and economical important benthic bivalve. The study shows that in spite of obvious differences between the two environments and the analytical approaches employed in each case, the analyses of fatty acid biomarkers can provide relevant ecological information. The fatty acid composition of the lipids of Bahía Blanca phytoplankton (high concentrations of the fatty acids 14:0, 16:4ω1, and 20:5ω3) reflected the presence of diatoms as a major component throughout the bloom. Fatty acid markers of the post-bloom phytoplankton in Bahía Blanca indicated a decline of phytoplankton biomass, and a relatively high input of detritus and terrestrial plant materials to the particulate organic matter of the estuary. Linoleic acid (18:2ω6), a typical “terrestrial” fatty acid, was conspicuous in the lipids of the post-bloom particulate matter of the Bahía Blanca estuary; 18:2ω2 was subsequently incorporated into zooplankton lipids diatom markers were also prominent in the lipids of pre-bloom and bloom phytoplankton at Sunnyside; post-bloom phytoplankton showed higher proportions of 18:0, 18:1ω9, and 18:4ω3, characteristic and often major fatty acids of dinoflagellates. The fatty acids of the digestive gland of P. magellanicus reflected the fatty acid composition of the phytoplankton, whereas those of the adductor muscle were practically unaffected by the composition of the food. This organ-specific response of an animal to the fatty acid composition of the diet is examined in terms of different applications of the fatty acid marker concept.     

Effect of thiamin deficiency on energy metabolites in the turkey

The effects of thiamin deficiency on selected energy-related metabolites was investigated. A basal diet (B) was formulated to be 11% of NRC recommended level of 2 mg/kg of thiamin. Thiamin was added to this basal diet to generate the control diet (C). Twenty one-week-old female turkeys were fed either the B or C diet. On days four and five of the experiment, food intake was decreased significantly in B fed turkeys (P < 0.05). Plasma and brain samples were collected at this time. Brains were dissected and analyzed for ATP, ADP, uric acid, free fatty acids, glucose, and GABA. Adenosine triphosphate and the ATP/ADP ratio were decreased in the hindbrain (medulla-pons area) of thiamin deficient birds (P < 0.01). Uric acid was increased (P < 0.001) and free fatty acids were decreased (P < 0.0005) in the plasma of thiamin deficient birds. Based on the data, changes in ATP and ATP/ADP levels may be related to the anorectic behavior exhibited by the thiamin deficient bird.     

The effects of barley, unmolassed sugar-beet pulp and molasses supplements on organic matter, nitrogen and fibre digestion in the rumen of cattle given a silage diet

In a 4 × 4 Latin-square experiment with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments, 4 cattle fitted with a rumen and duodenal cannula were given four grass-containing diets [480 g kg⁻¹ of the total dry matter (DM) intake] and barley (BU), barley + molasses (2:1) (BM), sugar-beet pulp (SU) or sugar-beet pulp + molasses (SM). Duodenal flow was estimated using Cr-mordanted straw and CoEDTA as markers, and microbial nitrogen entering the small intestine using purine bases of nucleic acids.

Molasses-containing diets had a higher (P < 0.01) organic matter (OM) digestibility. The proportion of digestible OM apparently disappearing in the rumen averaged 0.72 and was not significantly affected by the diet. When cattle received molasses, the quantity of microbial N entering the small intestine was higher (P < 0.05) and there was a trend towards a higher efficiency of microbial N synthesis (28.8 vs. 25.6 g N kg⁻¹ OM apparently digested in the rumen). When S diets were consumed, total non-ammonia N flow at the duodenum exceeded N intake by 7.0 g day⁻¹ and when B diets were consumed, it was 0.7 g day⁻¹ less than N intake. Feed N degradability in the rumen and apparent N digestibility of S diets were lower (P < 0.05; P < 0.001) than those of B diets.

Rumen (P < 0.05) and total (P < 0.001) digestibility of neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fibre (ADF) was higher when S diets were given. The proportion of digestible fibre disappearing in the rumen was not affected by the diet. The rate and extent of silage and hay DM degradation were not significantly affected by the diet. However, dietary inclusion of molasses decreased (P < 0.05) the lag time of both hay and silage DM degradation.

The rumen dilution rate of liquid averaged 0.097 and that of particles, 0.049; neither was significantly different for either B and S diets or U and M diets. Duodenal liquid flow was higher (P < 0.05) for M diets.

Average rumen pH was not affected by the diet, but the molasses diets increased (P < 0.05) the range in rumen pH. The BM diet was associated with higher (P < 0.01) rumen ammonia concentration than the other diets. Low rumen ammonia concentrations (< 2 mM) were observed for long periods between feeds. The molar proportion of butyrate was higher on B diets and there was a trend towards a higher proportion of acetate and propionate on S diets. Molasses tended to increase the molar proportion of propionate and butyrate.     

Main phospholipids and their fatty acid composition in muscle and cephalothorax of the edible Mediterranean crustacean Palinurus vulgaris (spiny lobster)

The total lipids of muscle and cephalothorax of Mediterranean lobster Palinurus vulgaris were found to be 1.0% and 2.4% of the wet tissue of which the phospholipids represented 66.5% and 47.5%, respectively. The main PhL saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in muscle and cephalothorax were C16:0, C18:0, C18:1ω-9, C18:1ω-7, C20:4ω-6, C20:5ω-3 and C22:6ω-3. 2-OH C14:0 and cyclo-17:0 fatty acids were also identified though in low percentages. The main individual PhL in muscle were found to be phosphatidylcholine (53.5%), 72.0% of which corresponded to the structure of 1,2-diacyl-glycerocholine while the rest 28.0% to 1-O-alkyl-2-acyl-glycerocholine or 1-O-(1-alkenyl)-2-acyl-glycerocholine and phosphatidylethanolamine (19.3%), 75.0% of which corresponded to the structure of 1,2-diacyl-glyceroethanolamine and 25% to 1-O-alkyl-2-acyl-glyceroethanolamine or 1-O-(1-alkenyl)-2-acyl-glyceroethanolamine. Cephalothorax main PhL were found to be PC and PE (66.4% and 18.8%, respectively). In muscle and cephalothorax PC ω-3 fatty acids amounted 7.78% and 8.60%, while in PE amounted 30.77% and 23.65% respectively. Furthermore, in both tissues PhL, cardiolipine phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol, sphingomyelin and lysophosphatidylcholine, were also found.     

Potential vs. realized larval dispersal: fish predation on larvae of the ascidian Lissoclinum patella (Gottschaldt)

The total swimming time of an invertebrate larva in a closed container is seldom a reliable indication of its swimming time in the field. In this paper we compare in situ observations on larval dispersal of the colonial ascidian Lissoclinum patella (Gottschaldt) to the total swimming time of the larvae in closed containers. A total of 123 out of 133 larvae were followed from release until they were consumed by predators (87%) or settled (13 %). More than three-quarters of the predation was from pomacentrid fishes [primarily Pomacentrus popei Jordan & Scale and Glyphidodontops rollandi (Whitley)]; the rest was from corals and zoanthids. In closed containers the larvae swam for > 2 h, but larvae followed in situ persisted for < 10 min. The behavior of the larva and the effect of predators greatly reduce the larva's realized dispersal, and may even limit the vertical distribution of adult L. patella. Although L. patella larvae have a potential dispersal distance of several hundred meters (depending upon local current speed), their realized dispersal within a coral reef appears to be < 10 m, and the majority of the larvae end up in fish guts.     

Effect of culture conditions on lipid and gamma-linolenic acid production by mucoraceous fungi

The effect of various culture conditions on growth, lipid production and fatty acid composition in Mucor rouxii and Mucor sp.1b were studied. Total lipid production was higher in media containing potassium nitrate for both the cultures (30%) and cultures grown on plant seed oil produced more than 44% lipid. Among the carbon sources tested, γ-linolenic acid (GLA) production was maximal in cultures grown on glucose. The major fatty acids produced by these two cultures were palmitic, stearic and oleic acids. Levels of GLA in M. rouxii and M. sp.1b was in the range of 3–17% under different culture conditions. Lactose was a poor promoter for biomass and lipid production in both cultures. No GLA was found in fungal cultures grown on sesame oil. The optimal conditions for the production of GLA was standardised in these cultures.     

Identification of a cDNA encoding a novel C18-Δ polyunsaturated fatty acid-specific elongating activity from the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)-producing microalga, Isochrysis galbana

Isochrysis galbana, a marine prymnesiophyte microalga, is rich in long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3, Δ^{4,7,10,13,16,19}). We used a polymerase chain reaction-based strategy to isolate a cDNA, designated IgASE1, encoding a polyunsaturated fatty acid-elongating activity from I. galbana. The coding region of 263 amino acids predicts a protein of 30 kDa that shares only limited homology to animal and fungal proteins with elongating activity. Functional analysis of IgASE1, by expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was used to determine its activity and substrate specificity. Transformed yeast cells specifically elongated the C18-Δ⁹ polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid (C18:2n-6, Δ^9,12) and -linolenic acid (C18:3n-3, Δ^9,12,15), to eicosadienoic acid (C20:2n-6, Δ^11,14) and eicosatrienoic acid (C20:3n-3, Δ^11,14,17), respectively. To our knowledge this is the first time such an elongating activity has been functionally characterised. The results also suggest that a major route for eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3, Δ^5,8,11,14,17) and docosahexaenoic acid syntheses in I. galbana may involve a Δ⁸ desaturation pathway.     

Utilization of fatty acids by Pieris brassicae reared on artificial and natural diets

The fatty acid composition of Pieris brassicae was measured from larvae reared on four different diets. Pieris can alter the composition of fatty acids in the diet through selective incorporation and synthesis. Oleate is preferentially accumulated on artificial diets (15·9 per cent in diet, 43·8 per cent in neutral lipid (NL) of fifth instar larvae), but not equally on natural diets (18·1 per cent in Brassica napus, 25·6 per cent in the NL of fifth instar larvae). Incorporation of linolenate appears to depend on the concentration of both linolenate and linoleate in the diet. With dietary levels of 35·7% linolenate and 32·2% linoleate, fifth instar larvae contain 12·2 and 16·0 per cent, respectively, of these acids. With 45·8% linolenate and 12·5% linoleate in the diet, fifth instar larvae contain 44·1 and 11·6 per cent of these acids, respectively, in the NL. Palmitoleate is actively synthetized on the artificial diets; with trace amounts of dietary palmitoleate, fifth instar larvae have 9·3 per cent of this acid in the NL. Pieris regulates the uptake of linoleate from the diet at the intestinal wall as was shown by linoleic acid-1-¹⁴C, and is unable to convert dietary linoleate to any of the 18-carbon analogues. The female apparently accumulates linolenate into egg phospholipids on the artificial diet, but in general the fatty acid composition of the eggs resembles that of the fat body.     

Problems with essential fatty acids: time for a new paradigm?

The term ‘essential fatty acid’ is ambiguous and inappropriately inclusive or exclusive of many polyunsaturated fatty acids. When applied most rigidly to linoleate and -linolenate, this term excludes the now well accepted but conditional dietary need for two long chain polyunsaturates (arachidonate and docosahexaenoate) during infancy. In addition, because of the concomitant absence of dietary -linolenate, essential fatty acid deficiency is a seriously flawed model that has probably led to significantly overestimating linoleate requirements. Linoleate and -linolenate are more rapidly β-oxidized and less easily replaced in tissue lipids than the common ‘non-essential’ fatty acids (palmitate, stearate, oleate). Carbon from linoleate and -linolenate is recycled into palmitate and cholesterol in amounts frequently exceeding that used to make long chain polyunsaturates. These observations represent several problems with the concept of ‘essential fatty acid’, a term that connotes a more protected and important fatty acid than those which can be made endogenously. The metabolism of essential and non-essential fatty acids is clearly much more interconnected than previously understood. Replacing the term ‘essential fatty acid’ by existing but less biased terminology, i.e. polyunsaturates, ω3 or ω6 polyunsaturates, or naming the individual fatty acid(s) in question, would improve clarity and would potentially promote broader exploration of the functional and health attributes of polyunsaturated fatty acids.