番茄灰霉病高效拮抗菌株的鉴定及通过导入β-1,3-葡聚糖酶基因提高其生防效果

从淄博市温室土壤中分离到蜡样芽孢杆菌B-04菌株,对灰霉病菌表现较高的拮抗作用。本研究从质粒pUC1940得到4.1kb的β-1,3-葡聚糖酶基因片断,将该基因与大肠杆菌-芽孢杆菌穿梭质粒pBE2和pHY300PLK连接,获得重组质粒PBE2-glu和pHY300PLK-glu,转入蜡样芽孢杆菌（Bacillus cereus）B-04菌株,获得工程菌株B-04-glu。限制酶切分析、ABP平板、PCR实验证实B-04成功转入β-1,3-葡聚糖酶基因。与野生菌株相比,平板拮抗试验表明工程菌株较原始菌株对番茄灰霉病（Botrytis cinerea）抑菌效果明显增强。     

In situ development and application of cDNA-AFLP to isolate genes of Candida oleophila (strain O) potentially involved in antagonistic properties against Botrytis cinerea

The yeast Candida oleophila (strain O) presents a high level of protective activity against Botrytis cinerea (gray mold) on postharvest apples. The cDNA-AFLP technique allows the comparison of mRNA populations extracted from cells grown in different conditions. In order to isolate yeast genes potentially involved in biological control properties, that technique was applied on strain O cells growing on apple wounds. The biological control properties of 8 C. oleophila strains and strain O were assessed in order to compare the gene expression of a non antagonistic strain against gene expression of strain O. In the absence of a non-antagonistic strain, an other comparison model was designed. It was based on the growth of strain O in different in situ conditions: strain O applied on apple wounds (O), strain O applied on apple wounds in presence of B. cinerea (B) and B. cinerea alone on apple wounds (F). A recovering technique, based on the washing of cells in the wound and a RNA extraction method followed by a DNase treatment were optimised before cDNA-AFLP application. Thirteen primer pairs were used. Their application resulted in an average of 54 and 55 bands for O and B respectively whereas no bands were observed for F. Among these bands, 8 were expressed more intensely in presence of the pathogen (1.1% of the fragments).     

Cloning and characterization of the gene encoding endo-beta-1,3-glucanase from Arthrobacter sp. NHB-10

The gluA gene, encoding an endo-beta-1,3-glucanase from Arthrobacter sp. (strain NHB-10), was cloned and analyzed. The deduced endo-beta-1,3-glucanase amino acid sequence was 750 amino acids long and contained a 42 amino acid signal peptide with a mature protein of 708 amino acids. There was no similarity to known endo-beta-1,3-glucanases, but GluA was partially similar to two fungal exo-beta-1,3-glucanases in glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 55. Of five possible residues for catalysis and two motifs in two beta-helix heads of GH family 55, three residues and one motif were conserved in GluA, suggesting that GluA is the first bacterial endo-beta-1,3-glucanase in GH family 55. Significant similarity was also found to two proteins of unknown function from Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) and S. avermitilis.     

Analysis of the beta-1,3-Glucanolytic System of the Biocontrol Agent Trichoderma harzianum

The biocontrol agent Trichoderma harzianum IMI206040 secretes beta-1,3-glucanases in the presence of different glucose polymers and fungal cell walls. The level of beta-1,3-glucanase activity secreted was found to be proportional to the amount of glucan present in the inducer. The fungus produces at least seven extracellular beta-1,3-glucanases upon induction with laminarin, a soluble beta-1,3-glucan. The molecular weights of five of these enzymes fall in the range from 60,000 to 80,000, and their pIs are 5.0 to 6.8. In addition, a 35-kDa protein with a pI of 5.5 and a 39-kDa protein are also secreted. Glucose appears to inhibit the formation of all of the inducible beta-1,3-glucanases detected. A 77-kDa glucanase was partially purified from the laminarin culture filtrate. This enzyme is glycosylated and belongs to the exo-beta-1,3-glucanase group. The properties of this complex group of enzymes suggest that the enzymes might play different roles in host cell wall lysis during mycoparasitism.     

Purification and characterization of an exo-beta-1,3-glucanase produced by Trichoderma asperellum

Trichoderma asperellum produces at least two extracellular beta-1,3-glucanases upon induction with cell walls from Rhizoctonia solani. A beta-1,3-glucanase was purified by gel filtration and ion exchange chromatography. A typical procedure provided 35.7-fold purification with 9.5% yield. The molecular mass of the purified exo-beta-1,3-glucanases was 83.1 kDa as estimated using a 12% (w/v) SDS-electrophoresis slab gel. The enzyme was only active toward glucans containing beta-1,3-linkages and hydrolyzed laminarin in an exo-like fashion to form glucose. The K(m) and V(max) values for exo-beta-1,3-glucanase, using laminarin as substrate, were 0.087 mg ml(-1) and 0.246 U min(-1), respectively. The pH optimum for the enzyme was pH 5.1 and maximum activity was obtained at 55 degrees C. Hg(2+) strongly inhibited the purified enzyme.     

Isolation and characterization of the K5-type yeast killer protein and its homology with an exo-beta-1,3-glucanase

K5-type yeast killer protein in the culture supernatant of Pichia anomala NCYC 434 cells was concentrated by ultrafiltration and purified to homogeneity by ion-exchange chromatography with a POROS HQ/M column followed by gel filtration with a TSK G2000SW column. The protein migrated as a single band on discontinuous gradient SDS-PAGE and had a molecular mass of 49,000 Da. The pI value of the K5-type killer protein was measured at pH 3.7 by high voltage vertical gel electrofocusing. The result of an enzyme immuno assay revealed that it was a glycosylated protein. Its internal amino acid sequencing yielded the sequences LNDFWQQGYHNL, IPIGYWAFQLLDNDPY, and YGGSDYGDVVIGIELL, which are 100% identical to exo-beta-1,3-glucanase (accession no. AJ222862) of Pichia anomala (strain K). The purified protein was highly stable at pH values between 3 and 5.5 and temperatures up to 37 degrees C.     

Improved antifungal activity of a mutant of Trichoderma harzianum CECT 2413 which produces more extracellular proteins

Trichoderma harzianum is a well-known biological control agent against fungal plant diseases. In order to select improved biocontrol strains from Trichoderma harzianum CECT 2413, a mutant has been isolated for its ability to produce wider haloes than the wild type, when hydrolysing pustulan, a polymer of beta-1,6-glucan. The mutant possesses between two and four times more chitinase, beta-1,3- and beta-1,6-glucanase activities than the wild type, produces about three times more extracellular proteins and secretes higher amounts of a yellow pigment (alpha-pyrone). This mutant performed better than the wild type during in vitro experiments, overgrowing and sporulating on Rhizoctonia solani earlier, killing this pathogen faster and exerting better protection on grapes against Botrytis cinerea.     

Genetic characterization of the yeast Pichia anomala (strain K), an antagonist of postharvest diseases of apple

AIMS: To obtain information about the genomic organization of Pichia anomala (strain K) and about its genomic diversity at species and intraspecies level. METHODS AND RESULTS: The PFGE karyotype of strain K was composed of four bands ranging in size from 1.1 to 3.2 Mb. The number of chromosomes was estimated at six since bands 2 and 3 seemed to result from the comigration of two chromosomes with similar size. A comparison of strain K and Hansenulawingeii migration profiles led to the estimate of K strain genome size at 11.7 Mb. Comparison with isogenic strains, resulting from the sporulation of strain K, highlighted some major karyotypic differences. Two segregants (KH6 and KH7) showed supernumerary chromosomes and one (KH9) displayed chromosomal length polymorphism. This genomic instability was confirmed by molecular hybridization with four probes, consisting of URA3, LEU2, PAEXG1 and PAEXG2 genes of P. anomala. URA3 and LEU2 probes showed second hybridization signals on supernumerary chromosomes of strain KH7 and on chromosome 6 of strain K for LEU2 only. Karyotypic comparison of seven non-isogenic P. anomala strains revealed chromosomal length polymorphism, a sign of intraspecies variation. CONCLUSIONS: This work has supplied information about genome size and chromosome number of strain K of P. anomala. The strain seems to be aneuploid because of the presence of supernumerary chromosomes and additional hybridization signals for URA3 and LEU2 probes in the chromosomal profile of some segregants. The work also highlighted genomic diversity within the P. anomala species. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Results obtained here increase information about the aneuploidy of P. anomala (strain K). Information about the genomic diversity of the segregants will be of great interest for further studies on strain K mode of action. The genome size and chromosomal profile of P. anomala presented here are different from the results obtained elsewhere for Hansenula anomala, while Hansenula is included as a synonym of Pichia. This warrants further studies to investigate this taxonomic relationship.     

Production of fungal cell wall degrading enzymes by a biocontrol strain of Bacillus subtilis AF 1

Fungal cell wall degrading chitinases and glucanases attained significance in agriculture, medicine, and environment management. The present study was conducted to describe the optimum conditions required for the production of beta-1,4-N-acetyl glucosaminidase (NAGase) and beta-1,3-glucanase by a biocontrol strain of Bacillus subtilis AF 1. B. subtilis AF 1 was grown in minimal medium with colloidal chitin (3.0%) and yeast extract (0.3% YE ) and incubated at pH 7.0 and 30 degrees C on constant shaker at 180 rpm for 6 days produced highest amounts of NAGase. Presence of 0.5 mM of phenyl methyl sulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) and 0.04% of Tween 20 further improved the enzyme production. B. subtilis AF 1 grown in minimal medium with laminarin (1%) and yeast extract (0.3%) for 3 days produced maximum amount of beta-1,3-glucanase. These conditions can be further scaled-up for large-scale production of NAGase and beta-1,3-glucanase by B. subtilis AF 1.     

An extracellular exo-beta-(1,3)-glucanase from Pichia pastoris: purification, characterization, molecular cloning, and functional expression

An extracellular exo-beta-(1,3)-glucanase (designated EXG1) was purified to apparent homogeneity from Pichia pastoris X-33 cultures by ammonium sulfate fractionation, ion-exchange chromatography, and gel filtration. The native enzyme is unglycosylated and monomeric with a molecular mass of approximately 47kDa. At its optimal pH of 6.0, the enzyme shows highest activity among physiological substrates toward laminarin (apparent Km, 3.5 mg/ml; Vmax, 192 micromole glucose produced/min/mg protein) but also hydrolyzes amygdalin and esculin, and the chromogenic substrates p-nitrophenyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside and p-nitrophenyl-beta-D-xylopyranoside. The P. pastoris EXG1 gene was cloned by a PCR-based strategy using genomic DNA as template. This intronless gene predicts an ORF that encodes a primary translation product of 414 amino acids. We believe that this preproprotein is processed sequentially by signal peptidase and a Kex2-like endoprotease to yield a mature protein of 392 amino acids (45,376 Da; pI, 4.46) that shares 36-64% amino acid identity with other yeast exo-beta-(1,3)-glucanases belonging to Glycoside Hydrolase Family 5. It also possesses the eight invariant residues and signature pattern [LIV]-[LIVMFYWGA](2)-[DNEQG]-[LIVMGST]-X-N-E-[PV]-[RHDNSTLIVFY] shown by all Family 5 members. Overexpression of the cloned EXG1 gene in Pichia cells, followed by Ni-CAM HC resin chromatography, yielded milligram quantities of homogeneous recombinant EXG1 in active form for further characterization studies.     

绿色木霉LTR-2 β-1, 3-葡聚糖酶基因的克隆及其在 毕赤酵母中的表达

根据从GenBank中检索到的木霉菌β-1,3-葡聚糖酶基因序列设计引物,以高产β-1,3-葡聚糖酶菌株--绿色木霉LTR-2的cDNA为模板,采用PCR方法扩增得到内切β-1,3-葡聚糖酶基因(glu).将glu克隆至载体pMD18-T上,进行了全序列测定.序列分析表明该基因由2289个核苷酸残基组成,含有一个开放阅读框架,可以编码762个氨基酸,与报道基本相同.翻译后的氨基酸序列含有两个β-1,3-葡聚糖酶的保守区RVVYIPPGTY和AASQNKVAYF.基因与已发表的木霉β-1,3-葡聚糖酶基因有较高的同源性,其中和哈茨木霉bgn3.1和绿木霉bgn13.1的同源性达到93%.序列已经提交GenBank,登录号为EF176582.将glu基因插入到巴斯德毕赤酵母(Pichia pastoris)穿梭载体pPIC9K中,获得重组质粒pGLU14,经线性化后转化毕赤酵母菌株KM71.经大量平板筛选,获得能有效分泌表达β-1,3-葡聚糖酶的毕赤酵母工程菌株KGLU14,菌落PCR扩增证实了glu基因已经整合到酵母基因组中.SDS电泳结果表明其β-1,3-葡聚糖酶的分子量大约为80kDa,和理论推测值大致相同.摇瓶发酵结果表明,培养基中β-1,3-葡聚糖酶的活力可达889U/mL.     

Selection of antagonists of postharvest apple parasites: Penicillium expansum and Botrytis cinerea

The objectives of this study were to constitute a collection of pathogenic agents of economic importance which cause losses of apple fruits after harvest namely Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum and to select in vivo efficient antagonistic strains able to protect fruits against both pathogens at 5 degrees C (P. expansum) and 25 degrees C (P. expansum & B. cinerea). Twenty strains of P. expansum and ten strains of B. cinerea have been isolated from infected apple fruits. Potential antagonistic micro-organisms (thirty three isolates) belonging to yeast, bacteria and fungi have been isolated from apple surface. Six of them (strains Ach1-1, Ach2-1, Ach2-2 belonging to Aureobasidium pullulans (De Bary) Arnaud, and strains 1112-3, 1113-10 and 1113-5 belonging to Aureobasidium pullulans (de Bary) Am. v. pullulans) showed a high level of protection (more than 80%) at 25 degrees C. once inoculated with P. expansum or B. cinerea for 5 days. The highest level of protection against P. expansum (96%) was observed with the application of Ach 2-1. Six days after inoculation of B. cinerea, strains Ach 2-2 and Ach 2-1 insured 100% and 96% of protection, respectively. At lower temperature (5 degrees C), first symptoms of P. expansum appeared 13 days after its inoculation. Percentages of protection observed after apple treatment with one of the six antagonistic strains were ranged from 78% to 94% 20 days after P. expansum inoculation. Strains labelled Ach showed a protective level higher than 90% against this pathogen, followed by strain 1113-10 (90%), strain 1113-5 (89%) and strain 1112-3 (82%). At 26 days post-inoculation, levels of protection decreased but remained higher than 60% (more than 80% with strain Ach2-2 and strain 1113-5, 75% with strain Ach2-1 and 1113-10, 72% with ach1-1, 61% for the other strains). Strain Ach2-2 and 1113-10 were retained as the best antagonists for the subsequent studies.     

Effect of intracellular trehalose in Cryptococcus laurentii and exogenous lyoprotectants on its viability and biocontrol efficacy on Penicillium expansum in apple fruit

AIMS: To improve viability and biocontrol efficacy of Cryptococcus laurentii after freeze drying and in subsequent storage. METHODS AND RESULTS: Viability of C. laurentii was improved after freeze drying and in subsequent storage at 4 or 25 degrees C by using skimmed milk (SM) and sugars (glucose, galactose, sucrose and trehalose) as protectants. Sugars and SM mixed together showed better protection than when they were used separately. Citric acid used as carbon source could induce accumulation of intracellular trehalose in the yeast. The yeast cells with high trehalose level (HT cells) had higher viability than those with low trehalose level (LT cells) after freeze drying and storage for 90 days. After storage for 90 days at 4 degrees C, the HT cells plus SM and sugars as protectant showed a similar biocontrol effect against blue mould rot in apple fruit caused by Penicillium expansum as fresh cells. CONCLUSIONS: Increasing intracellular trehalose content of C. laurentii and adding exogenous protectant (sugars + SM) could improve its viability and maintain its biocontrol efficacy. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The results have a potential value for commercial application of C. laurentii.     

Effects of yeast antagonists in combination with hot water treatment on postharvest diseases of tomato fruit

Hot water treatment (HWT) and two yeast antagonists, Candida guilliermondii and Pichia membranaefaciens were investigated separately and together for controlling Botrytis cinerea, and natural infection in tomato fruit stored at 20 °C. Applied separately, both HWT and antagonists inhibited decay caused by B. cinerea, and natural infection. The combination of antagonists and HWT showed better control efficacy. Application of HWT did not affect the growth of C. guilliermondii and P. membranaefaciens in tomato wounds, while HWT induced significant increase in the activities of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), chitinase (CHI) and β-1,3-glucanase in fruit. The mechanism by which HWT enhanced the biocontrol efficacy of the antagonistic yeasts may be related to the elicitation of biochemical defense responses in tomato fruit. The combination of antagonistic yeasts and HWT could be a promising method for the control of postharvest diseases of tomato fruit.     

Pichia angusta is an effective biocontrol yeast against postharvest decay of apple fruit caused by Botrytis cinerea and Monilia fructicola

The efficacy of eight isolates of Pichia angusta against three common postharvest pathogens of apple fruit was evaluated for the first time. All tested strains showed significant biocontrol activity against both Botrytis cinerea and Monilia fructicola , whereas efficacy against Penicillium expansum was poor. A leucine-auxotrophic mutant had no significant biocontrol activity against brown rot of apple, while the addition of 0.6–1.2 g L⁻¹ leucine in the fruit wound fully restored the biocontrol activity of this mutant against M. fructicola . Given the extremely well-developed classical and molecular genetics, the availability of genomic libraries, and its complete genomic sequence, this species can serve to elucidate the mechanisms related to biocontrol capacity.     

Effects of trehalose on stress tolerance and biocontrol efficacy of Cryptococcus laurentii

AIMS: To investigate the effects of internal trehalose on viability and biocontrol efficacy of antagonistic yeast Cryptococcus laurentii under stresses of low temperature (LT), controlled atmosphere (CA) and freeze drying. METHODS AND RESULTS: The content of trehalose in C. laurentii was increased by culturing the yeast in trehalose-containing medium. Compared with yeast cells with low trehalose level, the yeast cells with high level of internal trehalose not only obtained higher viability, but also showed higher population and better biocontrol efficacy against Penicillium expansum on apple fruit both at 1 degrees C and in CA condition (5% O(2), 5% CO(2), 1 degrees C). After freeze drying, survival of the yeast with high trehalose level was markedly increased when stored at 25 degrees C for 0, 15 and 30 days. Meanwhile, high integrity of plasma membrane was detected in the freeze-dried yeast with high trehalose level by propidium iodide staining. CONCLUSIONS: Induced accumulation of internal trehalose could improve viability and biocontrol efficacy of C. laurentii under stresses of LT and CA. Moreover, survival of the yeast was also increased as internal trehalose accumulation after freeze drying, and one of the reasons might be that trehalose gave an effective protection to plasma membrane. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The results of this experiment show a promising way to improve the biocontrol performance of antagonistic yeasts under the commercial conditions.     

Enzymic activity of the K5-type yeast killer toxin and its characterization

K5-type yeast killer toxin secreted by P. anomala NCYC 434 cells has a broad killing spectrum. Competitive inhibiton of killer activity showed that glucans, mainly the beta-1,3 glucan, represent the primary toxin binding site within the cell wall of sensitive cells. Its hydrolytic activity on laminarin in an exo-like fashion revealed that the toxin exerts its killing effect by exo-beta-1,3-glucanase activity. Its specific activity on laminarin was 120 U/mg, and the Michaelis constants K(m) and V(max) for laminarin hydrolysis were 0.25 mg/ml and 370 micromol/min/mg. The toxin exerted its cytocidal effect after 2 h contact with the target cells. Production of the toxin by the cells was induced only when they were grown in culture media rich in beta-glucan sources, and the addition of glucose increased the specific production rate. The enzymic activity of the toxin was fully inhibited by Hg(+2), but increased with some other metal ions, most of all by Pb(+2).     

Enhancement of the biocontrol agent Candida oleophila (strain O) survival and control efficiency under extreme conditions of water activity and relative humidity

The objective of this work is to evaluate the ability of some additive substances in protecting the biocontrol agent Candida oleophila (strain O) against the adverse effects of environmental factors, such as water activity (a_w, 0.93 and 0.98) and relative humidity (75% and 98%). The protection obtained with various protectant substances, skimmed milk (SM), peptone, maltose, sucrose, sorbitol, lactose and polyethylene glycol was assayed under in vitro and in vivo conditions. The yeast cells with the highest level of protecting agents (1%) had higher viability than those with low protectant levels (0.1% and 0.5%). SM, sucrose and sorbitol improved significantly the C. oleophila survival on apple fruit surface by 80.8%, 42.26% and 37.27% and gave a significant protection (from 96% to 100%) against Penicillium expansum under dried conditions. The highest strain O density and efficacy was obtained with SM. Under experimental conditions reflecting practical conditions, SM applied in combination with the strain O resulted in improved biocontrol efficacy by 74.65%. Therefore, SM could be used as material substrate with the best sugar protectants during the formulation process of this antagonistic yeast for eventual pre-harvest application.