Optical quantal analysis reveals a presynaptic component of LTP at hippocampal Schaffer-associational synapses

The mechanisms by which long-term potentiation (LTP) is expressed are controversial, with evidence for both presynaptic and postsynaptic involvement. We have used confocal microscopy and Ca(2+)-sensitive dyes to study LTP at individual visualized synapses. Synaptically evoked Ca(2+) transients were imaged in distal dendritic spines of pyramidal cells in cultured hippocampal slices, before and after the induction of LTP. At most synapses, from as early as 10 min to at least 60 min after induction, LTP was associated with an increase in the probability of a single stimulus evoking a postsynaptic Ca(2+) response. These observations provide compelling evidence of a presynaptic component to the expression of early LTP at Schaffer-associational synapses. In most cases, the store-dependent evoked Ca(2+) transient in the spine was also increased after induction, a novel postsynaptic aspect of LTP.     

The maintenance of LTP at hippocampal mossy fiber synapses is independent of sustained presynaptic calcium.

We have examined the role of presynaptic residual calcium in maintaining long-term changes in synaptic efficacy observed at mossy fiber synapses between hippocampal dentate granule cells and CA3 pyramidal cells. Calcium concentrations in individual mossy fiber terminals in hippocampal slice were optically measured with the calcium indicator fura-2 while stimulating the mossy fiber pathway and recording excitatory postsynaptic potentials extracellularly. Short-term synaptic enhancement was accompanied by increased presynaptic residual calcium concentration. A 2-fold enhancement of transmitter release was accompanied by a 10-30 nM increase in residual calcium. Following induction of mossy fiber LTP, transiently elevated presynaptic calcium decayed to prestimulus levels, whereas enhancement of synaptic transmission persisted. Our results demonstrate that, despite an apparent strong sensitivity of synaptic enhancement to presynaptic residual calcium levels, sustained increases in presynaptic residual calcium levels are not responsible for the maintained synaptic enhancement observed during mossy fiber LTP.     

Silent synapses and the emergence of a postsynaptic mechanism for LTP

Silent synapses abound in the young brain, representing an early step in the pathway of experience-dependent synaptic development. Discovered amidst the debate over whether long-term potentiation reflects a presynaptic or a postsynaptic modification, silent synapses--which in the hippocampal CA1 subfield are characterized by the presence of NMDA receptors but not AMPA receptors--have stirred some mechanistic controversy of their own. Out of this literature has emerged a model for synapse unsilencing that highlights the central role for postsynaptic AMPA-receptor trafficking in the expression of excitatory synaptic plasticity.     

A mathematical model for astrocytes mediated LTP at single hippocampal synapses

Many contemporary studies have shown that astrocytes play a significant role in modulating both short and long form of synaptic plasticity. There are very few experimental models which elucidate the role of astrocyte over Long-term Potentiation (LTP). Recently, Perea and Araque (Science 317:1083-1086, 2007) demonstrated a role of astrocytes in induction of LTP at single hippocampal synapses. They suggested a purely pre-synaptic basis for induction of this N-methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) Receptor-independent LTP. Also, the mechanisms underlying this pre-synaptic induction were not investigated. Here, in this article, we propose a mathematical model for astrocyte modulated LTP which successfully imitates the experimental findings of Perea and Araque (Science 317:1083-1086, 2007). Our study suggests the role of retrograde messengers, possibly Nitric Oxide (NO), for this pre-synaptically modulated LTP.     

Ensemble patterns of hippocampal CA3-CA1 neurons during sharp wave-associated population events

Transfer of neuronal patterns from the CA3 to CA1 region was studied by simultaneous recording of neuronal ensembles in the behaving rat. A nonlinear interaction among pyramidal neurons was observed during sharp wave (SPW)-related population bursts, with stronger synchrony associated with more widespread spatial coherence. SPW bursts emerged in the CA3a-b subregions and spread to CA3c before invading the CA1 area. Synchronous discharge of >10% of the CA3 within a 100 ms window was required to exert a detectable influence on CA1 pyramidal cells. Activity of some CA3 pyramidal neurons differentially predicted the ripple-related discharge of circumscribed groups of CA1 pyramidal cells. We suggest that, in SPW behavioral state, the coherent discharge of a small group of CA3 cells is the primary cause of spiking activity in CA1 pyramidal neurons.     

Neurotrophin expression in rat hippocampal slices: a stimulus paradigm inducing LTP in CA1 evokes increases in BDNF and NT-3 mRNAs.

We report that stimulation inducing long-term potentiation (LTP) in the CA1 pyramidal cell layer of the hippocampus evokes significant increases in both BDNF and NT-3 mRNAs in CA1 neurons. No changes in BDNF or NT-3 mRNA levels were seen in the nonstimulated regions of the pyramidal cell layer or the dentate. No change was seen in the levels of NGF mRNA at the time point examined. These results suggest that relatively normal levels of activity may regulate region-specific neurotrophin levels in the hippocampus. Given that known effects of NGF (and presumably of BDNF and NT-3) include elevation of neurotransmitter levels, elevation of sodium channels, and promotion of axonal terminal sprouting, activity-associated changes in neurotrophin levels may play a role in regulating neural connections in the adult as well as the developing nervous system.     

Presynaptic glutamic acid decarboxylase is required for induction of the postsynaptic receptor field at a glutamatergic synapse

We have systematically screened EMS-mutagenized Drosophila for embryonic lethal strains with defects in glutamatergic synaptic transmission. Surprisingly, this screen led to the identification of several alleles with missense mutations in highly conserved regions of Dgad1. Analysis of these gad mutants reveals that they are paralyzed owing to defects in glutamatergic transmission at the neuromuscular junction. Further electrophysiological and immunohistochemical examination reveals that these mutants have greatly reduced numbers of postsynaptic glutamate receptors in an otherwise morphologically normal synapse. By overexpressing wild-type Dgad1 in selected neurons, we show that GAD is specifically required in the presynaptic neuron to induce a postsynaptic glutamate receptor field, and that the level of postsynaptic receptors is closely dependent on presynaptic GAD function. These data demonstrate that GAD plays an unexpected role in glutamatergic synaptogenesis.     

皮质酮对大鼠海马脑片CA1区长时程增强效应的影响

目的：探讨糖皮质激素对海马神经突触可塑性的影响。方法：高浓度（10^-5mol/L)皮质酮直接作用于大鼠海马脑片,记录CA1区LTP）。结果：海马脑片CA1区LTP的形成受到抑制。结论：应激时过量糖皮质激素会直接影响海马神经突触可塑性。     

Opposite effects of presynaptic 5-HT3 receptor activation on spontaneous and action potential-evoked GABA release at hippocampal synapses

5-HT(3) (serotonin type 3) receptors are targets of antiemetics, antipsychotics, and antidepressants and are believed to play a role in cognition. Nevertheless, contrasting results have been obtained with respect to their functions in the CNS and in the control of transmitter release. We used rat hippocampal neurons in single-neuron microcultures to identify the roles of presynaptic 5-HT(3) receptors at central synapses. 5-HT (10 microm) caused a transient > 10-fold increase in the frequency of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents without affecting amplitudes or kinetics. This effect was abolished by tropisetron (30 nm) and when Ca(2+) channels were blocked by 100 microm Cd(2+) it was mimicked and occluded when neurons were depolarized by 20 mm, but not 10 mm, K(+). Thus, activation of presynaptic 5-HT(3) receptors increased spontaneous GABA release by causing depolarization and opening of voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels. In microculture neurons, 5-HT transiently reduced action potential-evoked inhibitory autaptic currents by > 50%; this effect was blocked by tropisetron and mimicked by 20 mm, but not 10 mm, K(+). Miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents were not altered by 5-HT. Excitatory autaptic currents were tonically reduced, an effect attenuated by 5-HT(1A) antagonists. Thus, presynaptic 5-HT(3) receptors control GABA, but not glutamate, release and mediate opposite effects on spontaneous and action potential-dependent release.     

Ensemble dynamics of hippocampal regions CA3 and CA1

Computational models based on hippocampal connectivity have proposed that CA3 is uniquely positioned as an autoassociative memory network, capable of performing the competing functions of pattern completion and pattern separation. Recently, three independent studies, two using parallel neurophysiological recording methods and one using immediate-early gene imaging, have examined the responses of CA3 and CA1 ensembles to alterations of environmental context in rats. The results provide converging evidence that CA3 is capable of performing nonlinear transformations of sensory input patterns, whereas CA1 may represent changes in input in a more linear fashion.     

Presynaptic kainate receptors that enhance the release of GABA on CA1 hippocampal interneurons

We report that kainate receptors are present on presynaptic GABAergic terminals contacting interneurons and that their activation increases GABA release. Application of kainate increased the frequency of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents recorded in CA1 interneurons. Local applications of glutamate but not of AMPA or NMDA also increased GABA quantal release. Application of kainate as well as synaptically released glutamate reduced the number of failures of GABAergic neurotransmission between interneurons. Thus, activation of presynaptic kainate receptors increases the probability of GABA release at interneuron-interneuron synapses. Glutamate may selectively control the communication between interneurons by increasing their mutual inhibition.     

SNAP-25 in hippocampal CA3 region is required for long-term memory formation

SNAP-25 is a synaptosomal protein of 25 kDa, a key component of synaptic vesicle-docking/fusion machinery, and plays a critical role in exocytosis and neurotransmitter release. We previously reported that SNAP-25 in the hippocampal CA1 region is involved in consolidation of contextual fear memory and water-maze spatial memory (Hou et al. European J Neuroscience, 20: 1593-1603, 2004). SNAP-25 is expressed not only in the CA1 region, but also in the CA3 region, and the SNAP-25 mRNA level in the CA3 region is higher than in the CA1 region. Here, we provide evidence that SNAP-25 in the CA3 region is also involved in learning/memory. Intra-CA3 infusion of SNAP-25 antisense oligonucleotide impaired both long-term contextual fear memory and water-maze spatial memory, with short-term memory intact. Furthermore, the SNAP-25 antisense oligonucleotide suppressed the long-term potentiation (LTP) of field excitatory post-synaptic potential (fEPSP) in the mossy-fiber pathway (DG-CA3 pathway), with no effect on paired-pulse facilitation of the fEPSP. These results are consistent with the notion that SNAP-25 in the hippocampal CA3 region is required for long-term memory formation.     

Spike train timing-dependent associative modification of hippocampal CA3 recurrent synapses by mossy fibers

In the CA3 region of the hippocampus, extensive recurrent associational/commissural (A/C) connections made by pyramidal cells may function as a network for associative memory storage and recall. We here report that long-term potentiation (LTP) at the A/C synapses can be induced by association of brief spike trains in mossy fibers (MFs) from the dentate gyrus and A/C fibers. This LTP not only required substantial overlap between spike trains in MFs and A/C fibers, but also depended on the temporal order of these spike trains in a manner not predicted by the well-known rule of spike timing-dependent plasticity and requiring activation of type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors. Importantly, spike trains in a putative single MF input provided effective postsynaptic activity for the induction of LTP at A/C synapses. Thus, the timing of spike trains in individual MFs may code information that is crucial for the associative modification of CA3 recurrent synapses.     

Post-natal knockout of prion protein alters hippocampal CA1 properties, but does not result in neurodegeneration

Prion protein (PrP) plays a crucial role in prion disease, but its physiological function remains unclear. Mice with gene deletions restricted to the coding region of PrP have only minor phenotypic deficits, but are resistant to prion disease. We generated double transgenic mice using the Cre-loxP system to examine the effects of PrP depletion on neuronal survival and function in adult brain. Cre-mediated ablation of PrP in neurons occurred after 9 weeks. We found that the mice remained healthy without evidence of neurodegeneration or other histopathological changes for up to 15 months post-knockout. However, on neurophysiological evaluation, they showed significant reduction of afterhyperpolarization potentials (AHPs) in hippocampal CA1 cells, suggesting a direct role for PrP in the modulation of neuronal excitability. These data provide new insights into PrP function. Furthermore, they show that acute depletion of PrP does not affect neuronal survival in this model, ruling out loss of PrP function as a pathogenic mechanism in prion disease and validating therapeutic approaches targeting PrP.     

Variability of neurotransmitter concentration and nonsaturation of postsynaptic AMPA receptors at synapses in hippocampal cultures and slices

To understand the elementary unit of synaptic communication between CNS neurons, one must know what causes the variability of quantal postsynaptic currents and whether unitary packets of transmitter saturate postsynaptic receptors. We studied single excitatory synapses between hippocampal neurons in culture. Focal glutamate application at individual postsynaptic sites evoked currents (I(glu)) with little variability compared with quantal excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs). The maximal I(glu) was >2-fold larger than the median EPSC. Thus, variations in [glu]cleft are the main source of variability in EPSC size, and glutamate receptors are generally far from saturation during quantal transmission. This conclusion was verified by molecular antagonism experiments in hippocampal cultures and slices. The general lack of glutamate receptor saturation leaves room for increases in [glu]cleft as a mechanism for synaptic plasticity.     

Selective activation of field CA1-CA2 by perforant neurons discharging in response to hippocampal efferent volleys

A long lasting evoked response, generated in the hippocampal field CA1-CA2 following postsynaptic sequential discharge of hippocampal pyramids and entorhinal neurons, has been analyzed by multiple simultaneous surface and depth recordings in the guinea pig dorsal hippocampal region. Results obtained suggest that it can be associated with postsynaptic excitatory potentials evoked in the distal portion of the apical dendrites of field CA1-CA2 pyramids by perforant neurons selectively discharged by impulses of hippocampal origin.     

Xenopus TACC3/maskin is not required for microtubule stability but is required for anchoring microtubules at the centrosome

Members of the transforming acidic coiled coil (TACC) protein family are emerging as important mitotic spindle assembly proteins in a variety of organisms. The molecular details of how TACC proteins function are unknown, but TACC proteins have been proposed to recruit microtubule-stabilizing proteins of the tumor overexpressed gene (TOG) family to the centrosome and to facilitate their loading onto newly emerging microtubules. Using Xenopus egg extracts and in vitro assays, we show that the Xenopus TACC protein maskin is required for centrosome function beyond recruiting the Xenopus TOG protein XMAP215. The conserved C-terminal TACC domain of maskin is both necessary and sufficient to restore centrosome function in maskin-depleted extracts, and we provide evidence that the N terminus of maskin inhibits the function of the TACC domain. Time-lapse video microscopy reveals that microtubule dynamics in Xenopus egg extracts are unaffected by maskin depletion. Our results provide direct experimental evidence of a role for maskin in centrosome function and suggest that maskin is required for microtubule anchoring at the centrosome.     

PI3K is required for insulin-stimulated but not EGF-stimulated ERK1/2 activation

The Ras/Raf/extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) signaling pathway is known to cross-talk with other signaling pathways, including phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway. However, the role of PI3K in ERK-1/2 activation induced by tyrosine kinase receptors was not fully understood. Here, we report that two structurally distinct PI3K inhibitors, wortmannin and LY294002, inhibited insulin-induced activation of ERK1/2 but had no effect on EGF-induced activation of ERK1/2 in hepatocellular carcinoma BEL-7402 and SMMC-7721 cells, breast cancer MCF-7 cells, and prostate cancer LNCaP cells. Although protein kinase C could act as a mediator between PI3K and ERK1/2, protein kinase C inhibitor chelerythrine chloride did not inhibit insulin-induced ERK1/2 activation. Both insulin- and EGF-induced ERK1/2 activation are strictly dependent on Ras activation, however, wortmannin only inhibited insulin-induced, but not EGF-induced Ras activation. These results indicate that PI3K plays different roles in the activation of Ras/ERK1/2 signaling by insulin and EGF, and that insulin-stimulated, but not EGF-stimulated, ERK1/2 and Akt signalings diverge at PI3K.