Moroccan Leishmania infantum: Genetic Diversity and Population Structure as Revealed by Multi-Locus Microsatellite Typing

Leishmania infantum causes Visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis in northern Morocco. It predominantly affects children under 5 years with incidence of 150 cases/year. Genetic variability and population structure have been investigated for 33 strains isolated from infected dogs and humans in Morocco. A multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) approach was used in which a MLMtype based on size variation in 14 independent microsatellite markers was compiled for each strain. MLMT profiles of 10 Tunisian, 10 Algerian and 21 European strains which belonged to zymodeme MON-1 and non-MON-1 according to multilocus enzyme electrophoresis (MLEE) were included for comparison. A Bayesian model-based approach and phylogenetic analysis inferred two L.infantum sub-populations; Sub-population A consists of 13 Moroccan strains grouped with all European strains of MON-1 type; and sub-population B consists of 15 Moroccan strains grouped with the Tunisian and Algerian MON-1 strains. Theses sub-populations were significantly different from each other and from the Tunisian, Algerian and European non MON-1 strains which constructed one separate population. The presence of these two sub-populations co-existing in Moroccan endemics suggests multiple introduction of L. infantum from/to Morocco; (1) Introduction from/to the neighboring North African countries, (2) Introduction from/to the Europe. These scenarios are supported by the presence of sub-population B and sub-population A respectively. Gene flow was noticed between sub-populations A and B. Five strains showed mixed A/B genotypes indicating possible recombination between the two populations. MLMT has proven to be a powerful tool for eco-epidemiological and population genetic investigations of Leishmania.     

Genetic polymorphism of Algerian Leishmania infantum strains revealed by multilocus microsatellite analysis

The present study applies multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) for studying the polymorphism among 55 strains of Leishmania infantum from Algeria. These strains from different Algerian foci representing different zymodemes, hosts and clinical forms were analysed using 14 microsatellite markers. All 55 strains had individual MLMT profiles and no relationship was observed between them and different host or geographical origins. Three populations of Algerian L. infantum were identified by a Bayesian clustering approach implemented in STRUCTURE software and supported by genetic distance analysis. Two populations, A and B, consisted mainly of strains belonging to zymodeme MON-1, and the third population, C, mainly of MON-24 strains isolated from cutaneous leishmaniasis cases. Interestingly, a small group of strains appeared as a mixture of different populations and might be putative hybrids. Genetic migration was noticed among the two MON-1 populations, A and B, as well as between populations A and C. Due to its high discriminatory power MLMT could be also successfully applied for differentiating relapses or re-infection for patients suffering from multiple episodes of visceral leishmaniasis.     

Co-evolution of the legume-Rhizobium association

Summary A number of examples is given demonstrating the co-existence of pea genotypes and their specific Rhizobium, strains isolated within the same region.R. leguminosarum strains compatible with the cultivated pea have a narrow symbiotic range and they are widely distributed in European soils. This is presumably due to the narrow genetic base of the cultivated pea and its wide-spread cultivation in European soils. Rhizobium strains capable of nodulating a primitive pea line from Afghanistan were only found in soils of the Middle East and Central Asia. A more restricted distribution of specific Rhizobium strains was found for fulvum peas from Israel. Rhizobium strains effective with the fulvum pea were found in Israeli soils. A good example of co-evolution due to geographical isolation was found in south Turkey. Here a pea line was found which can form an effective symbiosis with local Rhizobium strains but not with strains from other parts of Turkey.     

Population Structure and Evidence for Both Clonality and Recombination among Brazilian Strains of the Subgenus Leishmania (Viannia)

Background/Objectives: Parasites of the subgenus Leishmania (Viannia) cause varying clinical symptoms ranging from cutaneous leishmaniases (CL) with single or few lesions, disseminated CL (DL) with multiple lesions to disfiguring forms of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL). In this population genetics study, 37 strains of L. (V.) guyanensis, 63 of L. (V.) braziliensis, four of L. (V.) shawi, six of L. (V.) lainsoni, seven of L. (V.) naiffi, one each of L. (V.) utingensis and L. (V.) lindenbergi, and one L. (V.) lainsoni/L. naiffi hybrid from different endemic foci in Brazil were examined for variation at 15 hyper-variable microsatellite markers. Methodology/Principal findings: The multilocus microsatellite profiles obtained for the 120 strains were analysed using both model- and distance-based methods. Significant genetic diversity was observed for all L. (Viannia) strains studied. The two cluster analysis approaches identified two principal genetic groups or populations, one consisting of strains of L. (V.) guyanensis from the Amazon region and the other of strains of L. (V.) braziliensis isolated along the Atlantic coast of Brazil. A third group comprised a heterogeneous assembly of species, including other strains of L. braziliensis isolated from the north of Brazil, which were extremely polymorphic. The latter strains seemed to be more closely related to those of L. (V.) shawi, L. (V.) naiffi, and L. (V.) lainsoni, also isolated in northern Brazilian foci. The MLMT approach identified an epidemic clone consisting of 13 strains of L. braziliensis from Minas Gerais, but evidence for recombination was obtained for the populations of L. (V.) braziliensis from the Atlantic coast and for L. (V.) guyanensis. Conclusions/Significance: Different levels of recombination versus clonality seem to occur within the subgenus L. (Viannia). Though clearly departing from panmixia, sporadic, but long-term sustained recombination might explain the tremendous genetic diversity and limited population structure found for such L. (Viannia) strains.     

Comparison of Genotypes Between Environmental and Clinical Isolates of Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii Based on Microsatellite Patterns

We applied multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) method to investigate the genetic relation between Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii clinical and environmental isolates in S?o Paulo, Brazil. This MLMT method includes three functional gene sequences of C. neoformans var. grubii, which are dispersed on three chromosomes. In all, 89 strains (36 clinical and 53 environmental isolates) were analyzed. Of 36 clinical strains, 20 belonged to a major type of MLMT-13 (55.6%). They were mainly isolated from clinical specimens. About 52.8% of strains from the environment belong to a major type of MLMT-36, which are indigenous to environments and which were not isolated from clinical samples. Thus, we recognized two genotypes that distinguish majority of clinical and environmental strains. No differences were found in antifungal susceptibility and capsule size between major environmental and clinical MLMT types.     

Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Leishmania infantum from Southeastern France: Evaluation Using Multi-Locus Microsatellite Typing

In the south of France, Leishmania infantum is responsible for numerous cases of canine leishmaniasis (CanL), sporadic cases of human visceral leishmaniasis (VL) and rare cases of cutaneous and muco-cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL and MCL, respectively). Several endemic areas have been clearly identified in the south of France including the Pyrénées-Orientales, Cévennes (CE), Provence (P), Alpes-Maritimes (AM) and Corsica (CO). Within these endemic areas, the two cities of Nice (AM) and Marseille (P), which are located 150 km apart, and their surroundings, concentrate the greatest number of French autochthonous leishmaniasis cases. In this study, 270 L. infantum isolates from an extended time period (1978–2011) from four endemic areas, AM, P, CE and CO, were assessed using Multi-Locus Microsatellite Typing (MLMT). MLMT revealed a total of 121 different genotypes with 91 unique genotypes and 30 repeated genotypes. Substantial genetic diversity was found with a strong genetic differentiation between the Leishmania populations from AM and P. However, exchanges were observed between these two endemic areas in which it seems that strains spread from AM to P. The genetic differentiations in these areas suggest strong epidemiological structuring. A model-based analysis using STRUCTURE revealed two main populations: population A (consisting of samples primarily from the P and AM endemic areas with MON-1 and non-MON-1 strains) and population B consisting of only MON-1 strains essentially from the AM endemic area. For four patients, we observed several isolates from different biological samples which provided insight into disease relapse and re-infection. These findings shed light on the transmission dynamics of parasites in humans. However, further data are required to confirm this hypothesis based on a limited sample set. This study represents the most extensive population analysis of L. infantum strains using MLMT conducted in France.     

The Y chromosome pool of Jews as part of the genetic landscape of the Middle East

A sample of 526 Y chromosomes representing six Middle Eastern populations (Ashkenazi, Sephardic, and Kurdish Jews from Israel; Muslim Kurds; Muslim Arabs from Israel and the Palestinian Authority Area; and Bedouin from the Negev) was analyzed for 13 binary polymorphisms and six microsatellite loci. The investigation of the genetic relationship among three Jewish communities revealed that Kurdish and Sephardic Jews were indistinguishable from one another, whereas both differed slightly, yet significantly, from Ashkenazi Jews. The differences among Ashkenazim may be a result of low-level gene flow from European populations and/or genetic drift during isolation. Admixture between Kurdish Jews and their former Muslim host population in Kurdistan appeared to be negligible. In comparison with data available from other relevant populations in the region, Jews were found to be more closely related to groups in the north of the Fertile Crescent (Kurds, Turks, and Armenians) than to their Arab neighbors. The two haplogroups Eu 9 and Eu 10 constitute a major part of the Y chromosome pool in the analyzed sample. Our data suggest that Eu 9 originated in the northern part, and Eu 10 in the southern part of the Fertile Crescent. Genetic dating yielded estimates of the expansion of both haplogroups that cover the Neolithic period in the region. Palestinian Arabs and Bedouin differed from the other Middle Eastern populations studied here, mainly in specific high-frequency Eu 10 haplotypes not found in the non-Arab groups. These chromosomes might have been introduced through migrations from the Arabian Peninsula during the last two millennia. The present study contributes to the elucidation of the complex demographic history that shaped the present-day genetic landscape in the region.     

Feminist identifications across the ethnic-national divide: Jewish and Palestinian students in Israel

This study explores young Israeli Jewish and Palestinian women’s gender ideology and their readiness to endorse the label ‘feminist’. Using data from a large-scale survey among students in the northern periphery of Israel, we found that feminism has become a source of identification for both Jewish and Palestinian young women in Israel, and that Palestinians are more inclined to endorse the self-label ‘feminist’ than Jews. We also found that each group invests the term with different meanings. Jewish students who identify as feminists tend to hold a relatively egalitarian gender ideology whereas Palestinian students who are more readily inclined to identify as feminists hold a more conservative gender ideology. These findings challenge both the liberal-modernistic perspective that perceives a correlation between feminist saliency and egalitarian gender ideology and the post-colonial perspective’s expectation that women from ethnic/racial minority groups will be disinclined to identify as feminists.     

Genetic characterization of populations of the golden jackal and the red fox in Israel

The golden jackal and red fox are among the wildlife species protected by Israeli law as enforced by the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. In 1964, as a part of a management program to control rabies in Israel, a poison eradication campaign was launched to exterminate golden jackals, considered to be the main reservoir of the disease. The program resulted in the near-complete extermination of jackals in Israel, while foxes were only mildly affected. Jackals have since regained their original numbers and have recolonized southern Israel. We here examined the population structure of the golden jackal and red fox in Israel, 48 years after the poison eradication campaign. DNA from 88 golden jackals and 89 red foxes representing five different geographic regions was extracted and amplified at 13 microsatellite loci in order to characterize the populations on a genetic level. High genetic diversity was found among the jackal and fox populations. A possible migration route through the Jordan Rift Valley was suggested for both species by the genetic similarity of populations in northern and southern Israel. However, in both species, the animals from the center of Israel were distinctive from those north or south, indicating the relative isolation of central populations, likely due to fragmentation or a high abundance of food resources. Genetic profiles obtained for the golden jackal and the red fox in Israel may aid in their conservation management and in the study of zoonotic diseases.     

Signatures of Demography and Recombination at Coding Genes in Naturally-Distributed Populations of Arabidopsis Lyrata Subsp. Petraea

Demography impacts the observed standing level of genetic diversity present in populations. Distinguishing the relative impacts of demography from selection requires a baseline of expressed gene variation in naturally occurring populations. Six nuclear genes were sequenced to estimate the patterns and levels of genetic diversity in natural Arabidopsis lyrata subsp. petraea populations that differ in demographic histories since the Pleistocene. As expected, northern European populations have genetic signatures of a strong population bottleneck likely due to glaciation during the Pleistocene. Levels of diversity in the northern populations are about half of that in central European populations. Bayesian estimates of historical population size changes indicate that central European populations also have signatures of population size change since the last glacial maxima, suggesting that these populations are not as stable as previously thought. Time since divergence amongst northern European populations is higher than amongst central European populations, suggesting that the northern European populations were established before the Pleistocene and survived glaciation in small separated refugia. Estimates of demography based on expressed genes are complementary to estimates based on microsatellites and transposable elements, elucidating temporal shifts in population dynamics and confirming the importance of marker selection for tests of demography.     

Multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) of strains from Turkey and Cyprus reveals a novel monophyletic L. donovani sensu lato group

Background

New foci of human CL caused by strains of the Leishmania donovani (L. donovani) complex have been recently described in Cyprus and the Çukurova region in Turkey (L. infantum) situated 150 km north of Cyprus. Cypriot strains were typed by Multilocus Enzyme Electrophoresis (MLEE) using the Montpellier (MON) system as L. donovani zymodeme MON-37. However, multilocus microsatellite typing (MLMT) has shown that this zymodeme is paraphyletic; composed of distantly related genetic subgroups of different geographical origin. Consequently the origin of the Cypriot strains remained enigmatic.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The Cypriot strains were compared with a set of Turkish isolates obtained from a CL patient and sand fly vectors in south-east Turkey (Çukurova region; CUK strains) and from a VL patient in the south-west (Kuşadasi; EP59 strain). These Turkish strains were initially analyzed using the K26-PCR assay that discriminates MON-1 strains by their amplicon size. In line with previous DNA-based data, the strains were inferred to the L. donovani complex and characterized as non MON-1. For these strains MLEE typing revealed two novel zymodemes; L. donovani MON-309 (CUK strains) and MON-308 (EP59). A population genetic analysis of the Turkish isolates was performed using 14 hyper-variable microsatellite loci. The genotypic profiles of 68 previously analyzed L. donovani complex strains from major endemic regions were included for comparison. Population structures were inferred by combination of Bayesian model-based and distance-based approaches. MLMT placed the Turkish and Cypriot strains in a subclade of a newly discovered, genetically distinct L. infantum monophyletic group, suggesting that the Cypriot strains may originate from Turkey.

Conclusion

The discovery of a genetically distinct L. infantum monophyletic group in the south-eastern Mediterranean stresses the importance of species genetic characterization towards better understanding, monitoring and controlling the spread of leishmaniasis in this region.     

Biogeographical tests of the vicariance model in Mediterranean land snails

Aim To investigate the importance of vicariance in shaping land snail faunas. Location Three data sets of Mediterranean land snails were analysed: Helicoidea of the Iberian Peninsula and the complete land snail faunas of the central and eastern Aegean Islands and of Israel and Palestine. Methods The vicariance model predicts a clustering of species ranges. We tested for clustering of species ranges with a Monte Carlo simulation. For this simulation we used a null model that generates range data sets in such a way that their range size distribution, their species richness distribution and the spatial autocorrelation of the ranges approximate the parameters in the real data set. Biotic elements (clusters of species ranges) were delimited with model‐based Gaussian clustering. A second prediction of the vicariance model is that closely related species belong to different biotic elements. This was tested with a chi‐squared test. Results The distribution areas of the Iberian Helicoidea and the Israeli/Palestinian land snails are significantly clustered. The same is true for Israeli/Palestinian land snail species belonging to groups with geographically restricted species. However, the clustering is not significant in the complete central and eastern Aegean land snail data set, the Iberian Helicoidea species, and the central and eastern Aegean land snails belonging to groups with geographically restricted species. Contrary to the prediction of the vicariance model, closely related Iberian Helicoidea species and Israeli/Palestinian land snails belong significantly more often to the same biotic element than expected by chance. The null hypothesis that closely related species are homogeneously distributed across biotic elements cannot be rejected only for the data set that includes the Israeli/Palestinian land snails belonging to groups with geographically restricted species. Main conclusions The patterns found in the central and eastern Aegean land snail and the Iberian Helicoidea data sets do not correspond with the predictions of the vicariance model. This indicates that speciation modes other than vicariance were frequent, or that the distribution areas of many species in these faunas were largely modified by extensive post‐speciation dispersal and/or regional extinction. Hardly any possible vicariance events that might have contributed to the origin of the observed biotic elements in the Israeli/Palestinian land snail fauna could be identified. On the contrary, the biotic elements of the Israeli/Palestinian land snail fauna correspond with ecological factors. Vicariance has had only a limited influence on current biogeographical patterns in Mediterranean land snails.     

Historical and recent reductions in genetic variation of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sarotherodon galilaeus</Emphasis> population in the Sea of Galilee

The Sea of Galilee has great significance as a natural habitat and a freshwater source for Israel. Anthropogenic impacts have been placing significant pressure on the species inhabiting this lake, among which is Sarotherodon galilaeus, an omnivorous fish with a relatively large population and significance for commercial fishing. An alarming decline in annual catch towards 2008 suggested that this unique population might be at risk. With that in mind, we characterized the current genetic variation of this species in Israel with reference to fish from Ghana, based on D-loop and microsatellite markers. Genetic variation and differentiation were found mostly among fish from Ghanaian localities and between fish from Israel and Ghana, whereas fish from all Israeli localities had uniform and limited variation, a signature compatible with historical founder effect followed by local adaptations. Such historical processes could leave a population vulnerable as reflected in the sudden and recent population decline. Comparing genetic variation between archived 30 year-old scales and modern lake fish revealed further reduction in genetic variation coincident with the recent population decline. Thus, a recently occurring genetic bottleneck had placed this unique and isolated population at an even higher risk. We carefully discuss the events leading to the current risk status for S. galilaeus in Israel and highlight the need for vigilant monitoring and active management to support a more sustainable future for this and other fish communities in this important habitat.     

Natural and anthropogenic influences on the population structure of white‐tailed eagles in the Carpathian Basin and central Europe

European populations of the white‐tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla suffered a drastic decline during the 20th century. In many countries, only a few dozen breeding pairs survived or the species disappeared completely. By today, the populations have recovered, naturally or through restocking (e.g. in Scotland or the Czech Republic). In the Carpathian Basin, which is now a stronghold in southern Europe for the species in the southern part of the distribution range with more than 500 breeding pairs, only about 50 pairs survived the bottleneck. This region provides important wintering places for individuals arriving from different regions of Eurasia. In the present study, we investigated 249 DNA samples from several European countries, using 11 microsatellites and mitochondrial control region sequences (499 bp), to answer two main questions: 1) did the Carpathian Basin population recover through local population expansion or is there a significant gene flow from more distant populations as well? 2) Does the Czech population show signs in its genetic structure of the restocking with birds of unknown origin? Our microsatellite data yielded three genetically separate lineages within Europe: northern, central and southern, the latter being present exclusively in the Carpathian Basin. Sequencing of mitochondrial DNA revealed that there is one haplotype (B12) which is not only exclusive to the Carpathian Basin but it is frequent in this population. Our results suggest that in accordance with the presumably philopatric behaviour of the species, recovery of the Carpathian Basin population was mainly local, but some of the wintering birds coming from the northern and central populations contributed to its genetic composition as well. We detected considerably higher proportions of northern birds within the Czech Republic compared to the neighbouring areas, making it likely that parents of the reintroduced birds came from northern populations.     

Subgenotypes and Mutations in the S and Polymerase Genes of Hepatitis B Virus Carriers in the West Bank,Palestine

The mutation rate and genetic variability of hepatitis B virus (HBV) are crucial factors for efficient treatment and successful vaccination against HBV. Until today, genetic properties of this virus among the Palestinian population remain unknown. Therefore, we performed genetic analysis of the overlapping S and polymerase genes of HBV, isolated from 40 Palestinian patients'' sera. All patients were HBsAg positive and presented with a viral load above 10⁵ HBV genome copies/ml. The genotyping results of the S gene demonstrated that HBV D1 was detected in 90% of the samples representing the most prominent subgenotype among Palestinians carrying HBV. Various mutations existed within the S gene; in five patients four known escape mutations including the common G145R and D144E were found. Furthermore, a ratio of 4.25 of non-synonymous to synonymous mutations in the S gene indicated a strong selection pressure on the HBs antigen loops of HBV strains circulating in those Palestinian patients. Although all patients were treatment-naïve, with the exception of one, several mutations were found in the HBV polymerase gene, but none pointed to drug resistance. The study presented here is the first report to address subgenotypes and mutation analyses of HBV S and polymerase genes in Palestine.     

Population structure and geographical subdivision of the Leishmania major vector Phlebotomus papatasi as revealed by microsatellite variation

Abstract Multi‐locus microsatellite typing (MLMT) has been employed to infer the population structure of Phlebotomus papatasi (Scopoli) (Diptera: Psychodidae) sandflies and assign individuals to populations. Phlebotomus papatasi sandflies were collected from 35 sites in 15 countries. A total of 188 P. papatasi individuals were typed using five microsatellite loci, resulting in 113 different genotypes. Unique microsatellite signatures were observed for some of the populations analysed. Comparable results were obtained when the data were analysed with Bayesian model and distance‐based methods. Bayesian statistic‐based analyses split the dataset into two distinct genetic clusters, A and B, with further substructuring within each. Population A consisted of five subpopulations representing large numbers of alleles that were correlated with the geographical origins of the sandflies. Cluster B comprised individuals collected in the Middle East and the northern Mediterranean area. The subpopulations B1 and B2 did not, however, show any further correlation to geographical origin. The genetic differentiation between subpopulations was supported by F statistics showing statistically significant (Bonferroni‐corrected P < 0.005) values of 0.221 between B2 and B1 and 0.816 between A5 and A4. Identification of the genetic structure of P. papatasi populations is important for understanding the patterns of dispersal of this species and to developing strategies for sandfly control.     

Minority status in an ethnic democracy: The status of the Arab minority in Israel

It is commonly assumed that democracy in deeply divided societies takes either a majoritarian or consociational form. While the state in both types is ethnically neutral, there are some countries that combine viable democratic institutions with institutionalized ethnic dominance. The article introduces this third, so far not recognized, general type of ‘ethnic democracy’ and demonstrates its utility for Israel in treating its Arab minority. The tensions and contradictions in Israel's dual character as a Jewish democratic state give rise to five Arab demands that the Jewish majority reject: making Israel non‐Jewish and non‐Zionist, accepting Palestinian nationalism, lifting all restrictions on Arab individual rights, granting Arabs certain national collective rights and incorporating Arabs into the national power structure. Each Arab demand is discussed in detail and the rationale for Jewish objections is spelled out. The problem can be reduced, but not resolved, by establishing a separate Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip for the Palestinian people and by according Israeli Arabs the status of a Palestinian national minority within the Jewish state. These issues are not unique to Israel but rather common to ethnic democracies. It is concluded that the Israeli experience is becoming increasingly relevant to states which are democratizing but keeping appreciable ethnic dominance.     

Patch size of gall-forming aphids: deme formation revisited

Plants of the genus Pistacia (Anacardiaceae) serve as obligate hosts for a group of specialized gall-forming aphids (Homoptera: Fordinae). The aphids regularly migrate between the Pistacia (primary) host plants and the roots of non-specific grasses and cereals (secondary hosts). Gall density varies considerably between trees and sites. The intimate relationships between the aphids and their primary host, the natural variation of host susceptibility, and the heterogeneous geographical environment may promote local adaptation and deme formation in the aphid populations. Indeed, previous analyses of the genetic structure of the aphid Baizongia pistaciae, which forms large galls on the deciduous P. palaestina trees, suggested deme formation (Martinez et al. 2005). In this study, we analyzed the genetic structure of the B. pistaciae population at eight sites and 78 trees throughout Israel and a single population in Turkey, using two molecular markers (AFLP fingerprints and COI sequencing). The genetic distance between the Israeli populations was found to be low (D = 0.01–0.02), and there was no genetic differentiation found between any population pairs. In five of the Israeli populations, we also compared the genetic identity between aphids forming galls on the same tree and between galls on neighboring trees. The analysis indicated that the genetic identity of different galls within a tree resembles the correspondence between trees within a population. Our results showed no indication of deme formation or any hierarchical genetic substructuring within B. pistaciae populations in Israel. The extensive gene flow between aphid colonies may be explained by their dispersal abilities and the potential bridging role of the secondary hosts.     

Population structure of Erysiphe necator on domesticated and wild vines in the Middle East raises questions on the origin of the grapevine powdery mildew pathogen

Plant pathogens usually originate and diversify in geographical regions where hosts and pathogens co-evolve. Erysiphe necator, the causal agent of grape powdery mildew, is a destructive pathogen of grapevines worldwide. Although Eastern US is considered the centre of origin and diversity of E. necator, previous reports on resistant native wild and domesticated Asian grapevines suggest Asia as another possible origin of the pathogen. By using multi-locus sequencing, microsatellites and a novel application of amplicon sequencing (AmpSeq), we show that the population of E. necator in Israel is composed of three genetic groups: Groups A and B that are common worldwide, and a new group IL, which is genetically differentiated from any known group in Europe and Eastern US. Group IL showed distinguished ecological characteristics: it was dominant on wild and traditional vines (95%); its abundance increased along the season; and was more aggressive than A and B isolates on both wild and domesticated vines. The low genetic diversity within group IL suggests that it has invaded Israel from another origin. Therefore, we suggest that the Israeli E. necator population was founded by at least two invasions, of which one could be from a non-East American source, possibly from Asian origin.     

Life history and identification of Philophthalmus lucipetus from Israel

A Philophthalmus species whose larval stages have been isolated from Melanopsis praemorsa snails collected in Israel and formerly identified as probably belonging to Philophthalmus palpebrarum has now been reevaluated as belonging to Philophthalmus lucipetus. The present determination is based on a detailed study of all the stages of the parasite's life cycle--eggs, intramolluscan stages, cercariae, and adults. They were compared to the original species P. lucipetus, recently reexamined and redescribed from source material in Vienna, Austria. The identity of the eyefluke from Israel and P. lucipetus was further confirmed by successful cross-infections employing miracidia of the Israeli isolate in European (Bulgarian) Fagotia acicularis acicularis snails on the one hand and miracidia of P. lucipetus from Bulgaria in Israeli Melanopsis praemorsa on the other hand, but none infected Melano?des tuberculata snails from Israel.