Genetic Engineering of Forest Woody Plants

The present state of genetic engineering (GE) of forest woody plants is considered with special reference to the materials of the International Conference Wood, Breeding, Biotechnology and Industrial Expectations held in France in June, 2001. Main tree species subjected to GE are listed, aims of constructing transgenic plants discussed, and methods described. Major achievements in the field are considered along with the problems associated with the employment of GE in the breeding of forest woody plants.     

Further studies of drought resistance in woody plants

This publication is an extension of the 1956 review of drought resistance in woody plants. The more important recently used terms are listed and defined. Summaries of reports of drought effects on forest trees are presented in tabular form. Frost-drought is discussed as an important factor in the limitation of woody plants’ geographical ranges. The role that droughts play in the initiation of tree diseases is considered, especially in the light of new evidence from studies of diebacks-declines of forest trees. Interactions between soil moisture and transpiration are discussed as well as ways to control transpiration in large stands. Also considered are drought experiments with tree seedlings and symptomatology of drought injury. The means by which woody plants survive drought (excluding ephemerals) are discussed.     

Soil calcium content as the driving factor for vegetative structure and soil microbial function diverging across a fire chronosequence of the boreal forests in northeast China

中国东北地区北方森林土壤钙对植被结构和土壤功能随火烧序列恢复趋势分化的驱动作用 随着火后恢复时间的延长，各生物物理因子对森林群落结构恢复和重建的重要性也发生着变化。本研究的主要目的是明确我国北方森林在火灾干扰后地上植被和土壤微生物功能的关键恢复时期及其主导性驱动因子。在东北大兴安岭林区，选择不同时期的火烧林地，组成一个50年的火烧演替序列，分析随火烧后恢复时间的增加，乔木、灌木和草本物种的生物量在整个群落中所占比重的动态变化特征。同时，采集不同火烧林地的土壤样品，分析其养分含量、微生物生物量以及酶活性等理化指标，并以这些理化数据为基础，估算土壤微生物的生长效率和碳素利用效率，以反应土壤微生物功能随火烧时间的演变规律。研究结果发现，在选定的火烧序列内，不同功能群物种在森林群落的恢复和重建中的贡献表现出明显的时期变异性。草本物种的比重从最初的75%下降到1.5%，而乔木物种的比重则从火烧 初期的0.04%上升到后期的70%。土壤微生物的生长效率和碳素利用效率平均为0.242和0.236，在火烧恢复的第9、15和31年的取值明显大于火烧后的第2和3 年。火烧后恢复时期也影响了土壤中金属离子的含量，土壤中钙和铁的含量都在火烧序列后期得到明显提高，其中钙的含量与群落中木本物种间呈正相关关系，而与微生物功能间呈负相关关系。在本研究选定的火烧序列内，火烧干扰后的第15和31年是地上群落结构和土壤微生物功能恢复的关键期，地上和地下恢复过程在这两个时期呈现出分异趋势，而土壤中钙含量的变化对这一分异趋势发挥了一定的驱动作用。     

四川都江堰亚热带针阔混交林中主要晚生型外生菌根真菌类群的空间分布

晚生型外生菌根真菌通常出现在森林演替的后期,是成熟林中的优势外生菌根真菌类群.对四川都江堰一片亚热带针阔混交林中的菌根真菌地上群落进行调查,并应用二元逻辑回归分析对晚生型外生菌根真菌的主要类群,即鹅膏菌科、牛肝菌科和红菇科,与周围(5 m×5 m样方)树种组成的关系进行研究.还应用次级变量分析方法对主要外生菌根真菌类群的空间格局进行了分析.结果表明,非外生菌根树种及某些外生菌根树种对特定类群菌根真菌子实体的出现有抑制作用,而不同类群外生菌根真菌在克隆生长上的差异并不是子实体空间分布的决定因素.我们认为,当研究自然林中外生菌根子实体的空间分布时,除了宿主植物的分布,也应考虑非宿主植物的分布以及菌根真菌相互作用的影响.     

长白山北坡阔叶红松林及其次生白桦林高等植物物种多样性比较

应用Ｓｉｍｐｓｏｎ和Ｓｈａｎｎｏｎ多样性指数及其相应的均匀度,对阔叶红松林及其次生白桦林的高等植物物种多样性进行了对比研究．结果表明,对于木本植物,次生白桦林物种多样性高于阔叶红松林;而对于草本植物,情况正好相反．但在次生白桦林中,无论木本植物还是草本植物,占优势的物种都是一些常见种,而许多阔叶红松林中的珍稀或特有物种在次生白桦林中数量很少,有些甚至完全消失．对群落各种群多度分布的检验表明,２种森林类型中,无论木本植物还是草本植物,各种群的多度分布都遵从对数级数分布．     

Patterns of biodiverse,understudied groups do not mirror those of the surrogate groups that set conservation priorities: a case study from the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain of eastern North America

We conducted biodiversity inventories of lichens, woody plants, and sedges at 32 sites on the Mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain of eastern North America between November 2012 and June 2015. Each site comprised a single, uniform habitat, consisting of either Coastal Plain Floodplain forest, Coastal Plain Flatwood swamp, Coastal Plain Oak-Pine forest, Maritime forest, Mixed Mesic Hardwood forest, or Tidal forest. We compared alpha diversity and community assemblages of each organismal group across the sites, and compared selected minimal reserve sets in order to visualize biodiversity patterns and assess whether specific components of vascular plants (sedges and woody plants) serve as an effective surrogate for lichens. Woody plants provide a direct substrate for lichen growth, but there is no significant correlation between the alpha diversity of these groups. For conserving maximal species richness among the studied groups, lichens outperform the sedges and woody plants as the best surrogate group for building minimum reserve sets, even though vascular plants are more commonly used as a surrogate. Likewise, sedge alpha diversity does not correlate with lichens, or with woody plants. Although no group is an effective indicator for high alpha diversity sites of other organisms, a significant correlation between the community assemblages of lichens and woody plants suggests that protecting varied types of plant communities might serve as a workable surrogate for protecting lichens. The lack of congruence between species richness patterns across organismal groups suggests that the mechanisms that shape patterns of diversity are not identical, and that identifying and incorporating specific biodiversity indicators for understudied groups in conservation policy is necessary to ensure their protection.     

四川都江堰亚热带针阔混交林中主要晚生型外生菌根真菌类群的空间分布

晚生型外生菌根真菌通常出现在森林演替的后期,是成熟林中的优势外生菌根真菌类群。对四川都江堰一片亚热带针阔混交林中的菌根真菌地上群落进行调查,并应用二元逻辑回归分析对晚生型外生菌根真菌的主要类群,即鹅膏菌科、牛肝菌科和红菇科,与周围(5m×5m样方)树种组成的关系进行研究。还应用次级变量分析方法对主要外生菌根真菌类群的空间格局进行了分析。结果表明,非外生菌根树种及某些外生菌根树种对特定类群菌根真菌子实体的出现有抑制作用,而不同类群外生菌根真菌在克隆生长上的差异并不是子实体空间分布的决定因素。我们认为,当研究自然林中外生菌根子实体的空间分布时,除了宿主植物的分布,也应考虑非宿主植物的分布以及菌根真菌相互作用的影响。     

Species richness and phylogenetic diversity of seed plants across vegetation zones of Mount Kenya,East Africa

Mount Kenya is of ecological importance in tropical east Africa due to the dramatic gradient in vegetation types that can be observed from low to high elevation zones. However, species richness and phylogenetic diversity of this mountain have not been well studied. Here, we surveyed distribution patterns for a total of 1,335 seed plants of this mountain and calculated species richness and phylogenetic diversity across seven vegetation zones. We also measured phylogenetic structure using the net relatedness index (NRI) and the nearest species index (NTI). Our results show that lower montane wet forest has the highest level of species richness, density, and phylogenetic diversity of woody plants, while lower montane dry forest has the highest level of species richness, density, and phylogenetic diversity in herbaceous plants. In total plants, NRI and NTI of four forest zones were smaller than three alpine zones. In woody plants, lower montane wet forest and upper montane forest have overdispersed phylogenetic structures. In herbaceous plants, NRI of Afro‐alpine zone and nival zone are smaller than those of bamboo zone, upper montane forest, and heath zone. We suggest that compared to open dry forest, humid forest has fewer herbaceous plants because of the closed canopy of woody plants. Woody plants may have climate‐dominated niches, whereas herbaceous plants may have edaphic and microhabitat‐dominated niches. We also proposed lower and upper montane forests with high species richness or overdispersed phylogenetic structures as the priority areas in conservation of Mount Kenya and other high mountains in the Eastern Afro‐montane biodiversity hotspot regions.     

林业剩余物资源量评估方法

根据近十年来相关文献报道,分析了前人所建方法的合理性,结合中国林业生产实际,完善了林业剩余物资源潜力的计算方法。主要贡献包括:林业剩余物第二级分类的10个主要类型,即林木苗圃剩余物、林木修枝剩余物、木材采伐剩余物、木材造材剩余物、木材加工剩余物、竹材加工剩余物、薪材、废旧竹材、废旧木材、香蕉和菠萝残体;将经济林采伐和进口原木产生的剩余物计入相关木材剩余物计算范围;首次建立了包括木本水果在内的林木修枝剩余物的计算方法,以及多年生草本水果剩余物即香蕉和菠萝残体产量的计算方法;确定计算公式中参数所需要数据的来源;建议今后重点研究相关系数取值、林业剩余物资源量及其空间分布和相关行业标准等。     

生境片段化对千岛湖马尾松林内土壤种子库的影响

土壤种子库是森林群落更新的主要来源之一,对森林的演替和恢复等具有重要意义。生境片段化现象正日益严重地影响着森林群落,并可影响森林土壤种子库。研究了千岛湖地区的大陆及岛屿次生马尾松林内土壤种子库的组成及其影响因素(e.g.,岛屿面积,形状指数,隔离度和距岛屿边缘距离等)。根据大陆和岛屿的面积及边缘梯度,采用大数量小样方法,分别在土壤种子库最大化(初冬,2015年12月)和最小化(晚春,2016年4月)时期对马尾松林内土壤进行了机械取样。对土壤样品进行萌发实验,检测了两个时期的土壤种子库上层(0—2 cm)和下层(2—5 cm)种子组成,并通过广义线性混合效应模型等手段分析其影响因素。结果显示:(1)所有316个土壤样本中,萌发出幼苗1422株,隶属于29科、40属、41种。其中,木本植物幼苗占13种1024株,草本占28种398株。(2)Jaccard指数和相关性分析均显示初冬、晚春时期的土壤种子库组成具有很高的相似性;土壤种子库上、下层组成的相似性也很高。(3)广义线性混合效应模型分析显示,在大陆和岛屿上,土壤种子库下层种子含量低于上层;而大陆样地土壤种子库中的木本植物种子数较岛屿样地高。岛屿上,土壤种子库中的种子数随土层的加深而降低;随边缘梯度升高也下降,尤其是草本植物的种子。对于岛屿上的木本植物,不耐阴种的种子数量远大于耐阴种,尤其是土壤下层。表明千岛湖地区马尾松林内土壤种子库组成受到生境片段化的影响,进而可能作用于该类型森林群落的演替。     

森林生态系统中的粗死木质残体及其功能

粗死木质残体（Coarse Woody Debris,CWD)是指所有地上和地下小头直径＞2．5cm的死木质物,林分中CWD主要来源于个体的死亡和干扰所造成的死亡,在森林群落的生长发育过程中,CWD的数量变化呈“U”型,CWD的分解是动物和微生物吸收吸收养分,淋溶和自然破碎综合作用的结果,CWD的分解过程就是其发挥功能的过程,在此过程中各阶段都会有不同类型的生物群体利用其提供生境食物;CD具有吸收和释放养分的能力,是植物生长的营养库,是森林树木更新的良好介质;CWD是许多陆生生物和水生生物的食物来源,栖息地,避难所,哺育地,迁移通道等,在生物多样性保持方面发挥着不同替代的,在CWD的形成过程产生了林窗斑块,推动了森林生态系统的小循环,因此,CWD是森林生态系统中重要的结构性和功能性组成要素,在保持森林生态系统和水生生态系统的生物多样性及其生态过程完整性等方面起着不可替代的作用,应当给予了充分的重视。     

Plant Functional Types of Woody Species Related to Fire Disturbance in Forest–Grassland Ecotones

The study of plant functional types (PFTs) has been widely emphasized when analysing plant community changes in relation to variations in climate and disturbance regime. In this study, we search for PFTs of woody species near forest–grassland boundaries in South Brazil where, due to climate, forests tend to expand over grassland but are being restricted by frequent fires. We aimed at answering the questions: (i) which plant functional types of forest woody species can establish in adjacent grassland subject to fire disturbance and (ii) which plant functional types of forest and grassland woody species are related to short-term community dynamics in frequently burned grassland. Traits were assessed in woody plants in 156 plots (6.75 m²) arranged in 12 transects across forest–grassland boundaries with different fire history in their grassland part. The analysis used a recursive algorithm to search for traits and PFTs maximally associated to spatial distance from forest limit in one analysis, and elapsed time since last fire in another. As a result, nine PFTs of forest woody species were identified that best described community patterns associated to distance from forest. Resprouting ability characterized forest plants able to colonize grasslands. PFT diversity was higher in border plots than inside forest or grassland. Four PFTs of forest and grassland woody species best described woody species community patterns in the grassland associated to elapsed time since fire. Taller individuals of single-stemmed shrubs predominated in late post-fire recovery (3–4 years), while shorter multi-stemmed shrubs in recently burned areas (3 months to 1 year). PFTs of forest trees occurred in border plots or, as established adults, in grassland, remaining unaffected by fire. We conclude that easily measurable structural plant traits, such as those used in our study, are sufficient to evaluate post-fire community dynamics. Forest PFTs in burned grassland are restricted to those with resprouting ability to survive recurrent fire events. Establishment success is highest on protected sites with lesser or low-intensity fire.     

药用木本植物的生态保护

在分析我国药用木本植物的利用现状和特殊性的基础上。揭示了药用木本植物保护与利用之间的矛盾。提出了解决矛盾的根本出路和需要开展的基础研究工作．研究成树主要药用成分的器官分布、季节变化、年龄差异以及与环境因素的相关性;研究幼树主要药用成分的器官分布、季节变化特别是年龄差异;研究环境因素(培育条件)对幼树主要药用成分的影响和调控规律;进一步从蛋白质(主要药用成分代谢过程中的关键酶)和核酸(关键酶的编码基因)水平解析环境因子对幼树主要药用成分的调控机理．     

浙江仙居俞坑森林群落物种多样性研究

分别采用物种丰富度、物种多样性指数和群落均匀度指标对浙江省仙居县俞坑森林群落的物种多样性进行测定和分析。结果表明：本木植物的物种多样性以生境优越的常绿阔叶林为高,木本植物的物种丰富度、物种多样性指数明显大于草本植物。在群落垂直结构中,木本植物等2层的物种丰富度、物种多样性指数均显著大于第1层。物种丰富度以木本第3层最大,草本层最小;而物种多样性指数、群落均匀度则以木本第2层最大、草本层最小。木本植物各层次、草本层的物种多样性各项指标在群落各样地间均有一定的差异。     

藏东木本植物群落功能性状分布与环境的关系

研究植物群落功能性状间的相关关系及其对环境变化的响应,能够有效揭示植物功能性状的权衡模式及其对环境的适应策略。藏东昌都地区位于横断山脉西北部,复杂气候地貌孕育了丰富的植物资源,是青藏高原森林灌丛生态系统主要组分和国际生物多样性保护的热点地区。以藏东森林灌丛群落优势木本植物为研究对象,在大量野外调查基础上,采用相关分析、主成分分析、线性回归和方差分析等方法,研究了该区域植物功能性状间的相关关系、功能性状对环境变量的响应规律以及功能性状的变异来源。结果表明：(1)藏东木本植物表现出适应高寒环境的性状权衡模式,即：比叶面积、叶体积较小而叶干物质含量较大,叶磷含量和叶钾含量协同变化;(2)海拔和气候变量共同驱动着藏东木本植物功能性状的变化,并且藏东木本植物倾向于采取“高投入—慢回报”提高御寒能力的保守型适应策略;(3)海拔是影响藏东植物功能性状变异最显著的环境变量,种间变异在藏东植物群落功能性状随环境变化中起主要作用。研究结果揭示了藏东木本植物功能性状的权衡模式及其对高寒环境的适应策略,有助于加深对藏东自然植物资源分布规律和生态功能的认识,为区域生态系统功能和生物多样性保护提供科学依据。     

百山祖常绿阔叶林灌草层物种组成和 分布的10年动态

森林群落的动态受多方面因素的影响。林下的草本植物和木本植物幼苗幼树对于森林的更新及动态具有重要作用。为了解百山祖常绿阔叶林群落下层植物物种组成和分布的动态变化, 我们分析了2003-2013年间百山祖5 ha森林动态样地灌草层物种(包括DBH < 1 cm的木本植物和所有草本植物)在物种重要值、α多样性以及物种分布等方面的变化。结果表明: (1) 10年间, 群落灌草层植物个体数减少了28.7%, 其中草质藤本植物个体数下降比例最大(76.9%), 而乔木的幼苗和幼树下降比例最小(14.4%); (2)整个灌草层的物种数明显下降, 同时乔木的幼苗和幼树及直立灌木的均匀度均下降, 而草本植物均匀度有所上升; (3)除短尾柯(Lithocarpus brevicaudatus)、叶萼山矾(Symplocos phyllocalyx)、显脉野木瓜(Stauntonia conspicua)和福建悬钩子(Rubus fujianensis)等植物重要值逆势上扬外, 直立灌木物种重要值10年间的变化值与其在2003年时的重要值呈显著正相关, 而其余各类生活型植物都显示, 初始重要值越高的物种在10年后下降幅度越大; (4)物种分布与生境类型的相关性变化复杂, 除与山谷生境正相关的物种数量增加外, 研究期间与生境存在显著相关性的物种数都有所减少; (5) 10年来仅陡坡处物种多样性指数没有显著下降。总体来说, 百山祖常绿阔叶林灌草层群落仍未达到顶极状态, 2003-2013年间正缓慢向顶极群落演替。群落内部的种间和种内竞争应是当前群落动态的主导因素。     

What genes make a tree a tree?

Woody growth is evolutionarily ancient, yet has been gained and lost multiple times in plant evolution and is readily enhanced or minimized in eudicot speciation. New molecular genetic and genomic studies in Populus and Arabidopsis that are defining the genes responsible for cambium function and woody growth suggest that the genes regulating woody growth are not unique to woody plants. Surprisingly, key genetic mechanisms originally characterized as regulating the meristematic cells of the shoot apical meristem are also expressed in the vascular cambium during woody growth. This has important implications for the development of Populus as a model species and illustrates why forest trees constitute a contrived group of plants that have more in common with herbaceous relatives than we foresters like to admit.     

Spatial structure and diversity of woody plants and ectomycorrhizal fungus sporocarps in a natural subtropical forest

Spatial patterns of ectomycorrhizal fungi, ectomycorrhizal plants, and non-ectomycorrhizal plants were investigated in a natural subtropical forest using second-order analysis. The results of spatial pattern analysis showed that the degree of clumping of woody plants and ectomycorrhizal sporocarps were correlated. There was a significantly positive correlation of relative aggregation indices between ectomycorrhizal fungi and both non-ectomycorrhizal trees and ectomycorrhizal saplings. Correlations between percentage of ectomycorrhizal trees and sporocarp occurrence of ectomycorrhizal fungi and between diversities of woody plants and ectomycorrhizal fungi were distance-dependent or scale-related. A significantly high percentage of ectomycorrhizal trees was found only at relatively short distance from ectomycorrhizal fungal sporocarps, and significantly positive correlation of the diversity between woody plants and ectomycorrhizal fungi was found only at relative long distance, which implied that ectomycorrhizal sporocarps prefer ectomycorrhizal-tree-dominant micro-sites at near distances and at relatively large scales, diverse ectomycorrhizal sporocarps could be found in woodlands with high diversity of woody plants. Important factors affecting the spatial distribution, occurrence, and diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi include spatial pattern of ectomycorrhizal plants and non-ectomycorrhizal plants, percentage of ectomycorrhizal plants, and plant diversity in a natural forest.     

Responses of Woody Plants To Human-Induced Environmental Stresses: Issues,Problems, and Strategies for Alleviating Stress

Forest ecosystems are enormously important to mankind.They not only supply wood,foods,medicines,waxes,oils,gums,resins and tannins,but they also regulate climate, hydrology,mineral cycling,soil erosion,and cleansing of air and water.A variety of natural and human-induced environmental stresses have both beneficial and harmful effects on forest ecosystems.However,human-induced stresses are much more harmful than naturally induced disturbances.Human-induced stresses,which often are catastrophic although avoidable,include defor estation,fire,pollution,flooding,and soil compaction.Such stresses variously injure woody plants,impede vegetative and reproductive growth,and induce mortality,largely by causing physiological dysfunction in plants.Human-induced environmental stresses have led to decimation of forest ecosystems,loss of biodiversity,forest declines,and potential global warming. Short-rotation plantations,especially in the tropics,are increasing rapidly,largely to produce wood quickly.Plantations also stabilize soil,prevent water runoff,provide shelter from wind and heat,and relieve pressure for exploiting natural forests.However,plantations alone are unlikely to satisfy society 's growing needs for the products and services that can be provided by woody plant ecosystems.Hence,several multiple concurrent strategies are urgently needed to lessen the many destructive effects of human-induced environmental stresses on woody plants.These include not only the expansion of plantations but also of agroferestry systems and forest reserves as well as the development of innovative silvicultural techniques with a focus on the preservation of natural forests.Conserving sustainability of natural forests will require a land ethic as prelude to understanding the functioning of forest ecosystems,ecological and physiological impacts of disturbances on ecosystems,and the processes involved in recovery of disturbed ecosystems. Many of the harmful effects of pollution,fire,flooding,and soil compaction can be abated by judicious planning to create and perpetuate the critical components of forest stand structure and species composition.Strategies for continuous production of the products and services that can be supplied by woody plants will need to be reinforced by expanded long-term research and close cooperation among forest biologists,social scientists,economists,and regulatory government agencies.     

丽水大山峰木本植物区系研究

丽水市大山峰位于浙南山区,是浙江省木本植物区系最丰富地区之一,共有木本植物84科237属543种,而且古老孑遗植物和珍稀濒危植物较多,地理成分复杂多样,可划分为14个分布区类型,区系具有明显的热带-温带过渡性;木本植物区系中,中国特有种占绝对优势,共有338种,占总种数的62.2%,是构成大山峰森林植被的建群种和优势种的主要成分.与邻近山地植物区系比较发现,大山峰木本植物区系与浙江白云山关系最密切.