Determinants of spacing contraceptive use among couples in Mumbai: a male perspective

This study aimed to determine the factors influencing the use of spacing contraceptive methods in India, particularly from men's perspective. Data were obtained through a semi-structured interview schedule from 2,687 married men aged between 18 and 40 years from central Mumbai City, India, during 1999. Chi-squared tests and binary logistic regression analysis was carried out to determine the relationship between various variables and the likelihood of a couple using spacing contraceptive methods. Of the 2,687 couples, 1,395 (51.9%) were using one or other method of spacing contraceptives and 1,292 (48.1%) were not using any method at the time of survey. Male participation in contraceptive use was 23% (condom and withdrawal). The results indicate that the use of spacing contraceptive methods was significantly higher among those couples where the men desired one or two children (OR=4.3), had knowledge of five or more contraceptive methods (OR=1.9) and discussed with their wives obtaining family planning information (OR=3.2), spacing (OR=2.7) and permanent (OR=2) contraceptive methods. Age, income, desired number of children, knowledge of a greater number of contraceptive methods, inter-spouse communication regarding obtaining family planning information, spacing and permanent methods were found to be strong predictors of the use of spacing contraceptive methods. The study underlines the importance of intervention programmes aimed at promoting a small family norm, increasing the number of contraceptive choices available and encouraging inter-spouse communication. Hence, policymakers and programme managers should encourage interventions in this direction, targeting couples to enhance the use of spacing contraceptive methods.     

Imaging proteins inside cells with fluorescent tags

Watching biological molecules provides clues to their function and regulation. Some of the most powerful methods of labeling proteins for imaging use genetically encoded fluorescent fusion tags. There are four standard genetic methods of covalently tagging a protein with a fluorescent probe for cellular imaging. These use (i) autofluorescent proteins, (ii) self-labeling enzymes, (iii) enzymes that catalyze the attachment of a probe to a target sequence, and (iv) biarsenical dyes that target tetracysteine motifs. Each of these techniques has advantages and disadvantages. In this review, we cover new developments in these methods and discuss practical considerations for their use in imaging proteins inside living cells.     

Use of Recommended Search Strategies in Systematic Reviews and the Impact of Librarian Involvement: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Recent Authors

BackgroundPrevious research looking at published systematic reviews has shown that their search strategies are often suboptimal and that librarian involvement, though recommended, is low. Confidence in the results, however, is limited due to poor reporting of search strategies the published articles.ObjectivesTo more accurately measure the use of recommended search methods in systematic reviews, the levels of librarian involvement, and whether librarian involvement predicts the use of recommended methods.MethodsA survey was sent to all authors of English-language systematic reviews indexed in the Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE) from January 2012 through January 2014. The survey asked about their use of search methods recommended by the Institute of Medicine, Cochrane Collaboration, and the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and if and how a librarian was involved in the systematic review. Rates of use of recommended methods and librarian involvement were summarized. The impact of librarian involvement on use of recommended methods was examined using a multivariate logistic regression.Results1560 authors completed the survey. Use of recommended search methods ranged widely from 98% for use of keywords to 9% for registration in PROSPERO and were generally higher than in previous studies. 51% of studies involved a librarian, but only 64% acknowledge their assistance. Librarian involvement was significantly associated with the use of 65% of recommended search methods after controlling for other potential predictors. Odds ratios ranged from 1.36 (95% CI 1.06 to 1.75) for including multiple languages to 3.07 (95% CI 2.06 to 4.58) for using controlled vocabulary.ConclusionsUse of recommended search strategies is higher than previously reported, but many methods are still under-utilized. Librarian involvement predicts the use of most methods, but their involvement is under-reported within the published article.     

Comparing methods used in estimating biodiversity on sandy beaches: Pitfall vs. quadrat sampling

We compared the two most commonly used sampling methods, pitfall trapping and quadrat sieving, to study community diversity and talitrid abundance on sandy beaches. They are both widely used methods, however they are related to different behaviors: surface activity (pitfall traps) and burrowing in the substrate (quadrat sieving). To detect bias intrinsically generated by the use of different sampling methods, we applied both methods on a set of five beaches in New South Wales, Australia. The set included non-contiguous beaches, exposed and sheltered, more or less affected by recreational use. The results indicated a high fluctuation in biodiversity features. However, the most human-frequented beaches were grouped together by Multi Dimensional Scaling, and substrate-modifiers talitrid amphipods (sand-hoppers), played a major role in this scaling. The analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) indicated the roles of exposure and human recreational use in shaping the community, while the methods (quadrats vs. traps) resulted in higher fluctuation within samples than between, and informative outliers. Generalized Linear Models developed to estimate the probability of capture of talitrids by sampling method pointed to a higher probability to capture both sand-hoppers and beach-hoppers with the quadrat method. We finally suggest: (1) the comparative use of both sampling methods whenever possible, to capture multiple information and avoid bias in biodiversity estimates; and (2) an ad-hoc strategy when dealing with target populations. In particular, attention should be paid when targeting co-occurring talitrid species characterized by different ecology and behavioral traits: sand-hoppers (substrate modifiers) appeared to be more sensitive than beach-hoppers (non-substrate modifiers) to the impacts considered. In terms of biodiversity assessment the methods were equal, but for talitrid sampling quadrat sieving was more efficient.     

生态用水及其核算方法

生态用水研究是近年来国内外关注的热点。在综合分析国内外生态用水研究进展情况的基础上,针对河流、植被、湿地以及城市4种生态用水类型,对其核算方法进行了分析,比较了不同方法的优缺点及适用范围。提出目前生态用水研究还存在如下问题：(1)生态用水核算中采用的不同方法都有其各自的局限性,但又都是针对具体的研究区域、特定的生态系统的较实用方法。因此在生态用水的核算方法上关键是方法的选择和结合具体案例对核算方法在深度、精度上的进一步探讨;(2)生态用水的机理研究不够深入。以往研究直接以植被生长用水量、鱼类等需保护动物用水量等作为替代生态用水量,难以反映生态系统需水的真实状况;(3)在研究尺度上往往都显得过于宽泛,对研究区域的基本情况、生态条件及水资源现状很难有详细明确的认识,因此数据的真实性及结果的可应用性也必然降低。文章最后认为,今后生态用水研究应点面结合,加强机理研究,增强研究结果的实践意义。     

Comparison of biochemical and molecular methods for the identification of bacterial isolates associated with failed loggerhead sea turtle eggs

Aims: Comparison of biochemical vs molecular methods for identification of microbial populations associated with failed loggerhead turtle eggs. Methods and Results: Two biochemical (API and Microgen) and one molecular methods (16s rRNA analysis) were compared in the areas of cost, identification, corroboration of data with other methods, ease of use, resources and software. The molecular method was costly and identified only 66% of the isolates tested compared with 74% for API. A 74% discrepancy in identifications occurred between API and 16s rRNA analysis. The two biochemical methods were comparable in cost, but Microgen was easier to use and yielded the lowest discrepancy among identifications (29%) when compared with both API 20 enteric (API 20E) and API 20 nonenteric (API 20NE) combined. A comparison of API 20E and API 20NE indicated an 83% discrepancy between the two methods. Conclusions: The Microgen identification system appears to be better suited than API or 16s rRNA analysis for identification of environmental isolates associated with failed loggerhead eggs. Significance and Impact of the Study: Most identification methods are not intended for use with environmental isolates. A comparison of identification systems would provide better options for identifying environmental bacteria for ecological studies.     

Comparison of methods for the concentration of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from raw waters

This study compared the recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts ((oo)cysts) from raw waters using 4 different concentration-elution methods: flatbed membranes, FiltaMax foam, Envirochek HV capsules, and Hemoflow ultrafilters. The recovery efficiency of the combined immunomagnetic separation and staining steps was also determined. Analysis of variance of arcsine-transformed data demonstrated that recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts by 2 of the methods was statistically equivalent (flatbed filtration 26.7% and Hemoflow 28.3%), with FiltaMax and Envirochek HV recoveries significantly lower (18.9% and 18.4%). Recovery of Giardia cysts was significantly higher using flatbed membrane filtration (42.2%) compared with the other 3 methods (Envirochek HV 29.3%, FiltaMax 29.0%, and Hemoflow 20.9%). All methods were generally acceptable and are suitable for laboratory use; 2 of the methods are also suitable for field use (FiltaMax and Envirochek HV). In conclusion, with recoveries generally being statistically equivalent or similar, practical considerations become important in determining which filters to use for particular circumstances. The results indicate that while low-turbidity or "finished" waters can be processed with consistently high recovery efficiencies, recoveries from raw water samples differ significantly with variations in raw water quality. The use of an internal control with each raw water sample is therefore highly recommended.     

Barriers to the use of modern contraceptives and implications for woman-controlled prevention of sexually transmitted infections in Madagascar

Globally, unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) persist as significant threats to women's reproductive health. Barriers to the use of modern contraceptives by women might inhibit uptake of novel woman-controlled methods for preventing STIs/HIV. Use of modern contraceptives and perceptions and attitudes towards contraceptive use were investigated among women in Antananarivo, Madagascar, using qualitative research. The hypothetical acceptability of the diaphragm--a woman-controlled barrier contraceptive device that also holds promise of protecting against STIs/HIV--was assessed. Women consecutively seeking care for vaginal discharge at a public health clinic were recruited for participation in a semi-structured interview (SSI) or focus group discussion (FGD). Audiotaped SSIs and FGDs were transcribed, translated and coded for predetermined and emerging themes. Of 46 participating women, 70% reported occasional use of male condoms, mostly for preventing pregnancy during their fertile days. Although women could name effective contraceptive methods, only 14% reported using hormonal contraception. Three barriers to use of modern contraceptives emerged: gaps in knowledge about the range of available contraceptive methods; misinformation and negative perceptions about some methods; and concern about social opposition to contraceptive use, mainly from male partners. These results demonstrate the need for programmes in both family planning and STI prevention to improve women's knowledge of modern contraceptives and methods to prevent STI and to dispel misinformation and negative perceptions of methods. In addition, involvement of men will probably be a critical component of increased uptake of woman-controlled pregnancy and STI/HIV prevention methods and improved health.     

A comparison between SNaPshot, pyrosequencing, and biplex invader SNP genotyping methods: accuracy, cost, and throughput

Three methods of Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) detection: SNaPshot, Pyrosequencing and Biplex Invader, with two different chemistries were investigated to compare, (1) accuracy, (2) ease of use, (3) throughput capability, and (4) cost. We genotyped 192 human DNA samples across 24 SNPs (minor allele frequencies above 30%), of which seven SNPs were genotyped with all three methods. We show that the Biplex Invader genotyping method was found to be the most accurate and easiest to use with lowest cost, although Pyrosequencing provided similar results at a low cost. With little optimization, the accuracy of the SNaPshot method was also comparable to these two methods with a higher cost, if only singleplex reactions are used.     

Characteristics of users of traditional contraceptive methods in Bangladesh

Various national surveys suggest that the % of eligible couples in Bangladesh who are using traditional methods of contraception has been growing. This article presents detailed information on knowledge and use patterns of traditional methods and compares the use patterns of traditional and modern methods of contraception. The data are derived from the 1981 Contraceptive Prevalence Survey and information collected from a nationally representative sample of ever married women aged under 50, by way of field interviews using female interviewers. Quality of data was checked at different phases of the survey. Over 96% of the women reported that they knew at least 1 traditional method of contraception. The safe period was the most well known method (36.5%); about 30% reported knowledge of abstinence and 22% knew about withdrawal. Compared with modern methods, where knowledge declined with increased age, the knowledge of traditional methods shows no systematic pattern by age. Respondents with primary and higher education have higher knowledge of traditional methods than women who have never been to school. A similar pattern exists for employment status; non-Muslim women have consistently higher levels of knowledge than Muslim women. Data on patterns of use suggest that about 36% have used at least 1 contraceptive method, 15% having used traditional methods and 20.4% modern methods. The number of women who have used traditional methods increases from ages 20 to 44 and then declines. Use of traditional methods is relatively higher by the number of living children than by the number of children ever born. A similar pattern of association between background characteristics (education, employment and religion) and contraceptive knowledge is evident regarding level of use. Husband's level of education does not show any significant relationship with the use of traditional methods. The use rate of traditional methods was more than doubled among the women owning land compared to those having no land. The total current use rate of modern methods was higher among women aged 40-44 having relatively higher numbers of living children. As with current use, a positive relationship was observed between the socioeconomic variables and ever use. In general, it is concluded that socioeconomic variables played a dominant role in the decision of couples in choosing various methods of contraception. It is suggested that traditional methods still have an important role in family planning and that this should not be disregarded.     

Is traditional contraceptive use in Moldova associated with poverty and isolation?

This study investigates the correlates of traditional contraceptive use in Moldova, a poor country in Europe with one of the highest proportions of traditional contraceptive method users. The high reliance on traditional methods, particularly in the context of sub-replacement level fertility rate, has not been systematically evaluated in demographic research. Using cross-sectional data on a sub-sample of 6039 sexually experienced women from the 2005 Moldovan Demographic and Health Survey, this study hypothesizes that (a) economic and spatial disadvantages increase the likelihood of traditional method use, and (b) high exposure to family planning/reproductive health (FP/RH) programmes increases the propensity to modern method use. Multilevel multinomial models are used to examine the correlates of traditional method use controlling for exposure to sexual activity, socioeconomic and demographic characteristics and data structure. The results show that economic disadvantage increases the probability of traditional method use, but the overall effect is small. Although higher family planning media exposure decreases the reliance on traditional methods among younger women, it has only a marginal effect in increasing modern method use among older women. Family planning programmes designed to encourage women to switch from traditional to modern methods have some success--although the effect is considerably reduced in regions outside of the capital Chisinau. The study concludes that FP/RH efforts directed towards the poorest may have limited impact, but interventions targeted at older women could reduce the burden of unwanted pregnancies and abortions. Addressing differentials in accessing modern methods could improve uptake in rural areas.     

The Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM): a review of the ICCVAM test method evaluation process and current international collaborations with the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM)

Over the last decade, national authorities in the USA and Europe have launched initiatives to validate new and improved toxicological test methods. In the USA, the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) and its supporting National Toxicology Program Interagency Center for the Evaluation of Alternative Toxicological Methods (NICEATM) were established by the Federal Government to work with test developers and Federal agencies to facilitate the validation, review, and adoption of new scientifically sound test methods, including alternatives that can refine, reduce, and replace animal use. In Europe, the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) was established to conduct validation studies on alternative test methods. Despite differences in organisational structure and processes, both organisations seek to achieve the adoption and use of alternative test methods. Accordingly, both have adopted similar validation and regulatory acceptance criteria. Collaborations and processes have also evolved to facilitate the international adoption of new test methods recommended by ECVAM and ICCVAM. These collaborations involve the sharing of expertise and data for test-method workshops and independent scientific peer reviews, and the adoption of processes to expedite the consideration of test methods already reviewed by the other organisation. More recently, NICEATM and ECVAM initiated a joint international validation study on in vitro methods for assessing acute systemic toxicity. These collaborations are expected to contribute to accelerated international adoption of harmonised new test methods that will support improved public health and provide for reduced and more-humane use of laboratory animals.     

Biological methods for speciation of heavy metals: different approaches

Heavy metals are found in their different forms in the environment. The distribution, mobility, and toxicity of metals are strongly related to these different forms. This necessitates the exploration of different methods for the remediation and speciation of heavy metals. Some direct and indirect physico-chemical methods such as filtration, chemical precipitation, ion-exchange, electro deposition, and membrane systems have been used for the last four decades. However, it is only in last few years that reliable biological methods have also been used. The biological methods include the use of microorganisms (fungi, algae, bacteria), plants (live or dead) and biopolymers. The use of these methods for the speciation of heavy metals is reviewed here.     

An assessment of the use of chimpanzees in hepatitis C research past, present and future: 2. Alternative replacement methods

The use of chimpanzees in hepatitis C virus (HCV) research was examined in the report associated with this paper (1: Validity of the chimpanzee model), in which it was concluded that claims of past necessity of chimpanzee use were exaggerated, and that claims of current and future indispensability were unjustifiable. Furthermore, given the serious scientific and ethical issues surrounding chimpanzee experimentation, it was proposed that it must now be considered redundant--particularly in light of the demonstrable contribution of alternative methods to past and current scientific progress, and the future promise that these methods hold. This paper builds on this evidence, by examining the development of alternative approaches to the investigation of HCV, and by reviewing examples of how these methods have contributed, and are continuing to contribute substantially, to progress in this field. It augments the argument against chimpanzee use by demonstrating the comprehensive nature of these methods and the valuable data they deliver. The entire life-cycle of HCV can now be investigated in a human (and much more relevant) context, without recourse to chimpanzee use. This also includes the testing of new therapies and vaccines. Consequently, there is no sound argument against the changes in public policy that propose a move away from chimpanzee use in US laboratories.     

Use of nonparametric statistical criteria in epidemiological research

The article deals with the possibility of using two nonparametric statistical methods (sign criterion, Wilkonson's paired criterion) in epidemiological investigations. Examples illustrating the use of these methods are presented and their advantages in comparison with commonly used methods are shown.     

A Comparison of Resolution-Enhancement Methods in Saturation-Transfer EPR: 15N Isotopically Substituted Spin Labels and 35 GHz High-Frequency Operation

The use of ¹⁵N isotopic substitution and 35 GHz (Q-band) operation as resolution enhancement methods in saturation-transfer electron paramagnetic resonance (ST-EPR) are compared. We find that both methods offer roughly comparable enhancements in ST-EPR resolution. The most powerful approach to resolving complex ST-EPR spectral behavior, however, will probably be the combined use of multiple-frequency X- and Q-band operation with ¹⁵N isotopically substituted spin labels.     

Fourier methods for biosequence analysis.

Novel methods are discussed for using fast Fourier transforms for DNA or protein sequence comparison. These methods are also intended as a contribution to the more general computer science problem of text search. These methods extend the capabilities of previous FFT methods and show that these methods are capable of considerable refinement. In particular, novel methods are given which (1) enable the detection of clusters of matching letters, (2) facilitate the insertion of gaps to enhance sequence similarity, and (3) accommodate to varying densities of letters in the input sequences. These methods use Fourier analysis in two distinct ways. (1) Fast Fourier transforms are used to facilitate rapid computation. (2) Fourier expansions are used to form an 'image' of the sequence comparison.