Social Effects of a Dog's Presence on Children with Disabilities

ABSTRACT

Productive and positive interactions between dogs and humans have been documented in studies using dogs trained as companion animals and as assistants for people with disabilities. In this study, the effects of the presence of a dog on social interactions between three 5–9-year-old children with developmental disabilities and their teacher at an elementary school were analyzed. A single-case experimental design with repeated measures and with replicated effects across participants was employed to assess changes in interactions from baseline to an intervention condition. During baseline, interactions were assessed in the social environment of a room adjacent to the classroom, which had a toy dog and other play materials, during time with the teacher. The experimental change introduced sequentially and systematically across the participants was the additional presence of an obedience-trained dog, a German Shepherd/Labrador Retriever cross. Interactions between the children and their teacher were examined during morning sessions using reliable direct observation interval recording procedures. All participants demonstrated an increase in overall positive initiated behaviors (verbal and non-verbal) toward both the teacher and the dog. The children also showed an overall decrease in negative initiated behaviors. In addition, observational ratings showed positive generalization of improved social responsiveness by the children in their classroom following the completion of the experimental sessions. This study supports the position that children with developmental disabilities benefit from the use of skilled dogs as teaching assistants and therapeutic adjuncts.     

Behavioral effects of the presence of a dog in a classroom

Abstract

To test the idea that dogs have a positive influence on the social behavior of school children, one of three dogs was introduced alternately into a class at an elementary school in Vienna, attended by 24 children (mean age: 6.7 years). Most of the 14 boys and ten girls came from first-generation immigrant families. With parental consent, their behavior was videotaped for two hours every week, during “open teaching situations,” first during a one-month control period in the absence of dogs, followed by an experimental period of similar duration, when a dog was present in the classroom. Frequency and duration of all observable behaviors of individuals and their interactions were coded from these tapes. Although major individual differences were found in the children's interest in the dog and their behavioral responses, the group became socially more homogenous due to decreased behavioral extremes, such as aggressiveness and hyperactivity; also, formerly withdrawn individuals became socially more integrated. Effects were more pronounced in the boys than the girls. Even though the children spent considerable time watching and making contacting with the dog, they also paid more attention to the teacher. We conclude that the presence of a dog in a classroom could positively stimulate social cohesion in children and provide a relatively cheap and easy means of improving teaching conditions.     

Children'S Attitudes About the Humane Treatment of Animals and Empathy: One-Year Follow up of a School-Based Intervention

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the maintenance of the effect of a year-long school-based humane education program on fourth grade children's attitudes toward animals. Generalization to human-directed empathy was also measured. Using a pretest-posttest (Year 1) follow-up (Year 2) design and ANCOVA, we found that the experimental group (children who experienced the program) humane attitudes mean was greater than the control group mean at initial posttesting and at the Year 2 follow up. At both Year 1 and Year 2 posttesting, the enhancement of attitudes toward animals generalized to human-directed empathy, especially when the quality of the children's relations with their pets was considered as a covariate. The results contribute to the growing literature on the significance of the relations between children and animals, and serve to encourage humane education efforts.     

Enhancing Children's Attitudes About the Humane Treatment of Animals: Generalization to Human-Directed Empathy

Abstract

We assessed the impact of a year-long, school-based humane education program on younger (first and second graders) and older (fourth and fifth graders) children's attitudes toward the treatment of animals. Generalization to human-directed empathy was also measured. Using a pretest-posttest design and ANCOVA, we found that the program enhanced the animal-related attitudes of children differentially, depending on grade level. For younger children, there was no significant difference between experimental (E) and control (C) group attitude means; however, qualitative analysis showed that greater enhancement of attitudes occurred for first grade E group children than for C group children at that grade level. No differences were present on the generalization measure of empathy. For older children, there was a significant difference between E and C group attitude means qualified by grade level—there was greater enhancement of humane attitudes for E group than for C group fourth graders but no difference for fifth graders. On the generalization measure of empathy, posttest means for the E group were significantly greater than means for the C group regardless of grade level. The results contribute to the growing literature on the relation between children and animals and serve to encourage and validate the efforts of humane educators to improve children's caring and kindness toward companion and noncompanion animals.     

Pet Ownership,Type of Pet and Socio-Emotional Development of School Children

ABSTRACT

The current study was designed to compare the socio-emotional characteristics of school children pet owners and children without pets and to examine whether the type of pet is a variable which can differentiate the socio-emotional development of their owners. The subjects, 425 girls and 401 boys, were students of fourth (n=265), sixth (n=295) and eighth (n=266) grade of elementary schools from the metropolitan area of Zagreb, Croatia. Socio-emotional variables assessed in the study were: child attachment to pet, child prosocial orientation, empathy, loneliness, perception of family climate and social anxiety. The data showed that 54.4% of children in the sample were pet owners (26.2% of children in the study had a dog, 9.2% had a cat, and 19.0% had some other pet). In order to answer the main research question, several analyses of variance (gender by grade by pet ownership) were computed for each criterion of socio-emotional development. Significant main effects were obtained for empathy, prosocial orientation and pet attachment, with dog owners being more empathic and prosocially oriented than non-owners, and dog owners and cat owners being more attached to their pets than owners of other kinds of pets. Additional analyses of variance were computed in order to examine the role of attachment in the socio-emotional functioning of the children. Subjects were divided in three sub-groups: non-owners, lower then average attached owners, and higher than average attached owners. Children who scored higher than average on the attachment to pets scale showed significantly higher scores on the empathy and prosocial orientation scales than non-owners and children who scored lower than average on the attachment to pets scale. It was also found that children with higher levels of attachment to pets rated their family climate significantly better than children who had lower attachment to pets.     

Dog training as a violence prevention tool for at-risk adolescents

Abstract

Humane education programs often target at-risk children and seek to teach empathy and gentleness with animals, but few of these have been assessed. This prospective, longitudinal study examined the effects of “Teaching Love and Compassion” (TLC), a humane education program employing educational group discussions and dog training for seventh-grade, inner city youth in Los Angeles, California. The TLC program is offered to groups of 10 to 12 students during their three-week vacation at the year-round school. Students for the experimental and control groups were selected from the pool of those scoring below the 25th percentile in reading and mathematics. The study, conducted over a two-year period, assessed four successive sessions, comprising an experimental group of 41 children and a control group of 42 children. In morning sessions, the experimental group had discussions focusing on interpersonal issues and conflict management. In the afternoons they were taught the proper care and obedience training of shelter dogs. Pre-, post-, and follow-up tests, specially developed to accommodate the children's reading ability and scheduling constraints, were given to both the experimental and control groups to assess their knowledge of animal care, conflict management skills, attitudes toward self and others, and fear of dogs. Members of the experimental group increased their understanding of pet care and the needs of animals and retained this information more than did the control group for all four TLC sessions, both at post-testing (F=58.4, p=0.0001) and follow-up testing (F=18.9, p=0.0001). At post-testing, the experimental group showed a trend toward a decreased fear of dogs (F=3.6, p=0.062), that was significant at follow-up testing (F=4.2, p=0.019). For these children who are exposed to daily violence and aggression to people and animals, these modest changes were associated with the three-week intervention.     

Children with Avoidant or Disorganized Attachment Relate Differently to a Dog and to Humans During a Socially Stressful Situation

ABSTRACT

Human attachment representations are shaped in interaction with the primary caregiver and are generally transferred to further bonding/ social partners later in life. According to previous evidence, primary attachment representations acquired with humans do not seem to be transferred to companion animals. This was held as a major factor why such animals would effectively provide social support also to persons with insecure attachment. The aim of this study in 19 male children, 7–11 years of age and with insecure-avoidant or disorganized attachment, was to investigate differences in their social behavior and in physiological responses when socially supported by an unfamiliar therapy dog in a socially stressful situation. The Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C) was conducted to elicit stress in the children when in the presence of the dog and a female human investigator. We found that boys with disorganized attachment (n=11) communicated more intensely than avoidantly attached boys (n=8) with both the dog and humans present. Boys with a disorganized attachment had more physical contact with the dog during the TSST-C and talked more to the dog during and after the TSST-C than did boys with an insecure-avoidant attachment. While the prevailing wisdom holds that attachment representations acquired with the primary human caregiver would not transfer to companion animals, our data indicate otherwise. At least components of attachment-related interaction styles, such as degree of contact seeking in verbal and tactile interactions are also displayed in interaction with animal partners.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

Preference for,and Responsiveness to,People, Dogs and Objects in Children with Autism

ABSTRACT

Autism strongly affects the ability to establish social interactions. However, there is some suggestion that people with autism establish close social relationships with nonverbal communicating and intentionally acting animals (such as dogs). In this study, 14 children with autism (3 females, 11 males; mean age = 11.4 years) were observed when given the choice to interact with a person, dog (certified therapy dog) or objects (e.g., toys). The children interacted most frequently and for longest with the dog, followed by the person and then the objects. We suggest that animals, specifically dogs, communicate their intentions in a way more readily understandable to people with autism. We also suggest that autism affects predominantly interpersonal interactions.     

Children with pets do not show higher empathy: A challenge to current views

Abstract

A group of children (n=137) were surveyed with respect to pet ownership and pet preferences to explore the link between the human–animal bond and empathy. The most notable findings—and contrary to our predictions—were: (1) there was no difference in empathy (Bryan Empathy Index) between pet owners and non-owners; (2) there was no correlation between empathy and attachment to pets (Companion Animal Bonding Scale); and (3) higher empathy scores were not related to pet-preference indicators. A more fine-grained examination of the pet-owning group only revealed differences with respect to type of animal owned. Higher empathy was evident with dog ownership as opposed to other pet types. However, this needs to be tempered by the equally interesting observation that lower empathy was related to cat ownership. Regardless of how ownership groups are configured, there is consistent evidence that differentiates cat owners (lower empathy) from dog owners (higher empathy). When pet ownership and pet preference are combined to form new groupings, again, the cat effects and dog effects are evident. Implications extend to the need: (1) for future research on the nature of the human–animal bond; (2) to explore the relationship between personality and animal bonding; and (3) to refine the questions surrounding the animal-based links to empathy, as well as other related constructs such as prosocial behaviour, compassion, self-esteem, self-control, autonomy, affection, stress, responsibility, and perhaps even emotional intelligence, career paths and community service.     

An Animal-Assisted Therapy Intervention with Female Inmates

ABSTRACT

For many years corrections facilities have used animals as rehabilitative or therapeutic tools. Using the Outcome Questionnaire 45.2 to measure change, this study employed an experimental design to measure the effects of an animal-assisted therapy group on symptom distress, interpersonal relationships, social role performance, and overall distress of incarcerated women living in the general prison population at the Utah State Prison. Data were gathered during pretest, posttest, and at 30-day follow-up. Participants were selected using randomized systematic sampling and randomly assigned to control or experimental groups. Both the experimental and control groups used the same curriculum. The experimental group had a dog present and the control group did not. Statistical analysis indicated significant improvement for all domains measured for participants in both groups. However, there was no difference in this improvement between groups, indicating that having a dog present during the group process did not influence the improvements. Recommendations for future research are discussed.     

The value of a dog in a classroom of children with severe emotional disorders

Abstract

The purpose of the present study was to determine how a dog's presence in a self-contained classroom of six children diagnosed with severe emotional disorders affected students' emotional stability and their learning. Across an eight-week period of time, the children were observed, the children and their parents were interviewed, and behavioral data were recorded when students went into emotional crisis. Qualitative analysis of all coded data indicated that the dog's placement in this self-contained classroom: a) contributed to students' overall emotional stability evidenced by prevention and de-escalation of episodes of emotional crisis; b) improved students' attitudes toward school; and c) facilitated students' learning lessons in responsibility, respect and empathy.     

Effects of Animal-Assisted Activities with Guinea Pigs in the Primary School Classroom

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the effects of a classroom-based animal-assisted activities (AAA) program with guinea pigs on the social functioning of primary school children. We hypothesized that participants in the experimental condition (n = 64), compared with a waitlist control group (n = 64), would demonstrate improvements in social functioning following the program. Parents and teachers used the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) to evaluate the social skills and problem behaviors of 128 participating children (age range = 4.8 to 12.7 years) before and after an 8-week period. Teachers also rated academic competence at both time points. Children who participated in the AAA program demonstrated significantly greater improvements in social functioning than their control group peers, as defined by greater increases in social skills (teacher SSRS) and decreases in problem behaviors (parent and teacher SSRS). There were no significant differences between the groups in academic competence. AAA participants demonstrated significant increases in social skills and decreases in problem behaviors from pre- to post-program on the teacher version of the SSRS. Control group participants did not show significant changes on these measures. These findings suggest that an AAA program with guinea pigs may be a feasible addition to the primary school classroom in order to improve social functioning. Further component analysis will be necessary to determine whether the animal is the active ingredient in AAA programs of this nature.     

Behavior of Children with Learning Disabilities Interacting With a Therapy Dog

ABSTRACT

Therapy using animals is now a widespread phenomenon, but some authorities have argued that there is insufficient evidence either to justify or to guide animal-assisted therapy. This reflects a paucity of adequate quantitative methodology for investigations in this area. The little research that has been carried out suggests that animal presence may increase general social behavior. Our study aimed to develop a methodology to investigate the effects of a dog on the behavior of children with severe learning disabilities. A repeated measures design was used to observe eight children with Down's syndrome in controlled sessions, under the direction of an adult. Each session consisted of seven minutes of interaction with a real dog, and seven minutes with an imitation dog. Differences in visual attending, and verbal and non-verbal initiation and response behaviors indicated that the real dog provided a more sustained focus for positive and co-operative interactions with itself and the adult, than did the imitation dog.     

Empathy-Related Ratings to Still Images of Human and Nonhuman Animal Groups in Negative Contexts Graded for Phylogenetic Similarity

ABSTRACT

Research using film stimuli has shown that the strength of empathy-related responses toward nonhuman animals is related to the amount of phylogenetic similarity of the animals to humans. The present study aimed to develop and validate a new set of still images depicting humans and nonhuman animals (primates, quadruped mammals, birds, reptiles) in negative circumstances to provide greater control over variable image quality and contextual features found to be present in film stimuli. Following development of the stimulus set, participants (40 males, 46 females) with a mean age of 23.35 years made subjective ratings of empathy and other reactions to the images. The hypothesized effect of higher ratings of empathy for nonhuman animals that were more closely related to humans was supported. The same effect of phylogenetic similarity was also observed for ratings of arousal, dominance, interest, and pleasantness elicited by the images. Moreover, a clear effect of trait empathy emerged, consistent with the prediction that higher empathy ratings would be elicited from those higher in trait empathy. Familiarity, as assessed by level of involvement with the presence and care of animals, was also positively related to trait empathy. The findings validate a new methodology for the assessment of human empathy toward other humans and nonhuman species depicted in negative life situations. Furthermore, the findings demonstrate that human empathy generalizes toward other species according to perceived phylogenetic similarity.     

Companion Animals and other Factors Affecting Young Children's Development

ABSTRACT

This study focuses on three factors presumed to affect young children's development: their age, the quality of their home environments, and the child-pet relationship. Three sets of analyses are presented: effects associated with pet ownership (pet presence), effects associated with the strength of the child-pet relationship, and the combined effects of age, home environment, and the child-companion animal relationship. This study includes both a parent survey (n = 88) and in-home assessments (n = 44) of the three- to six-year-old children. The analyses support the hypothesis that normal preschool children's intellectual, motor, and social development is associated with the presence of a companion animal and increases with their age, the quality of their home environment, and their relationship with a companion animal. While the children's age and the quality of their home environments were associated with measures of the children's cognitive, motor, and social development, the companion animal effect was limited to the young children's social development including their empathy for other children.     

Applied Ethics in Animal Research: Philosophy,Regulations, and Laboratory Applications Edited by John P. Gluck,Tony DiPasquale,and F. Barbara Orlans

ABSTRACT

The goal of this study was to test if dolphin-assisted therapy could be an effective therapeutic intervention for children with significant social and communication disabilities. Furthermore, it was crucial to determine the relative importance of the dolphin and the parent consultation factors implicit in the therapy. The method employed was a before-and-after comparison of three control groups and one experimental group. In the experimental group, all three aspects of the therapeutic intervention—interaction with dolphins, parent counseling and a curative, relaxed environment—were included. Control group 1 (outpatient therapy group) was limited to just interaction with dolphins. In control group 2 (farm animal group), the parents were counseled after the children interacted with farm animals (which replaced dolphins). Control group 3 received no treatment. The post-treatment parent questionnaire results revealed therapeutic success in the areas of both productive and receptive language, processing of non-verbal cues, social skills, and self-confidence. Observations of parent–child interaction indicated that after treatment in the experimental group, interactions of children could be interpreted more accurately, on a long-term basis. The discovered therapeutic effects occurred regardless of whether the children were in the water during therapy or not.     

Animal-Assisted Therapy in the Treatment of Substance Dependence

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) on the therapeutic alliance with an adult, residential, substance abuse population in group therapy. We used randomized samples and controlled conditions to establish the effects of chosen variables that influence outcome. A total of 231 people took part in the study (control group [without therapy dog]: n = 96; experimental group [with therapy dog]: n = 135) in which there were 26 group sessions. The results of the study indicate that, overall, the therapeutic alliance is enhanced with the addition of a therapy dog: the AAT group had a more positive opinion of the therapeutic alliance, as measured using the Helping Alliance Questionnaire (HAQ-II), than the control group (ANOVA: F_(1,229) = 25.44, p < 0.001). Clients seeking treatment for a dual diagnosis, clients with state social service involvement, and clients seeking treatment for alcohol addiction had similar opinions of the therapeutic alliance, whether in the experimental group or the control group. Males, females, pet owners, court ordered clients, and clients seeking treatment for polysubstance, cannabis, and methamphetamine dependence all were more positive about the therapeutic alliance if they were in the experimental group than if they were in the control. This study demonstrates that addiction professionals could increase treatment success by adding this complementary, evidence-based practice.     

Effect of classroom language diversity on head start ELL and non-ELL children’s social-emotional development

Abstract

This study used the FACES 2009 cohort to examine the effect of classroom language diversity on the social-emotional development (defined as social skills, approaches to learning, and behavior problems) of the ELL and non-ELL children. A three-level hierarchical linear modeling in which time was nested within the child and the child was nested within the classroom was conducted. The children’s ELL status was determined based on their home language and English proficiency. Results showed that the non-ELL children demonstrated a decline in the developmental trajectory of social skills in the classrooms with high language diversity. On the other hand, the ELL children with English proficiency demonstrated a low trajectory of social skills in the classrooms with low language diversity. These findings suggest that the effect of classroom language diversity on the children’s social-emotional development depends on the children’s language status. Implications and future research are discussed.     

Preschoolers Categorize Animate Objects Better in the Presence of a Dog

ABSTRACT

The current study was designed to examine whether preschool children categorize picture stimuli differentially in the presence of a real dog compared with a stuffed dog or a human. Seventeen preschool children (age in months; M = 51.67, SD = 8.06), both Typical and those with a developmental delay (“Identified”), were asked to categorize Animate and Inanimate objects into two environments (Farm and Ocean) in each of three Collaborator conditions (Real Dog, Stuffed Dog, and Human). As predicted, there was a main effect of animation: the children more accurately categorized Animate (e.g., cow) exemplars than Inanimate ones (e.g., tractor). Additionally, the Animation variable interacted with Collaborator, such that in the presence of the real dog the impact of animation was significant, but this effect was not significant in the presence of the stuffed dog or human. This result indicates that the presence of the real dog served as a highly salient stimulus which encouraged the children to focus more of their attention on other animate objects in the list. This result provides additional evidence that the presence of a dog helps preschool children to restrict their attention to the demands of the task. This is a new and interesting finding that indicates that the presence of a real dog does have an impact on cognitive task performance.