Dogs as an Adjunct to Therapy: Effects of Animal-Assisted Therapy on Rehabilitation Following Spinal Cord Injury

ABSTRACT

Approximately 17,000 new cases of spinal cord injury (SCI) are reported annually in the United States. Rehabilitation from SCI involves substantial mental, emotional, and physical challenges. Using a randomized controlled trial design, we assessed the efficacy of animal-assisted therapy (AAT) as an aid in rehabilitation following a SCI. We hypothesized that patients with SCI undergoing rehabilitation occupational therapy with AAT would demonstrate greater positive shifts in mood and outlook, reduced pain, and reduced stress compared with patients exposed to the same rehabilitation therapy but without AAT. Over four sessions of occupational therapy, 31 patients completed standard rehabilitation activities (control group) or rehabilitation activities integrating an animal therapy team (treatment group). Patients completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and Numerical Rating Scale (NRS) at each session, had salivary cortisol sampled at the second session, and completed the Brief Pain Inventory at study baseline and exit. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVAs and t-tests. The results revealed a small but significant effect of animal-assisted therapy on self-reported negative affect. Findings for group differences on positive affect, stress, and pain unpleasantness were null, although non-significant findings were in the hypothesized direction for several variables and yielded small effect sizes. Continued research is needed on the influence of AAT on mood improvement, stress reduction, and ultimately improved physical health outcomes during rehabilitation after SCI.     

The Effect of an Animal-Assisted Intervention on Anxiety and Pain in Hospitalized Children

ABSTRACT

Forty children between the ages of 8 and 18 years, who were admitted to a hospital pediatric unit, were randomly assigned to an animal-assisted intervention (AAI) or an active control condition (working on an age-appropriate jigsaw puzzle). Ratings of pain and anxiety were taken both pre- and post-condition. The attachment Questionnaire and Family Life Space Diagram (FLSD) also were administered, and information on medications taken was recorded. A significant post-condition difference was found between groups for anxiety, with the aaI group having lower anxiety scores. However, no significant within- or between-group pre-post changes in either pain or anxiety were detected. Nearly two-thirds of the children (64%) reporting pain at baseline were receiving some type of analgesic, which may have influenced outcomes. Findings demonstrate some support that attachment may be a moderating variable: children with a secure attachment style reported lower pain and anxiety at baseline, with large effect sizes for differences in both anxiety (g = 1.34) and pain (g = 1.23). Although the aaI did not significantly reduce anxiety and pain in these hospitalized children, further investigation of the influence of analgesic use and the moderating effect of attachment style is indicated.     

The Role of Therapy Dogs in Speed and Accuracy to Complete Motor Skills Tasks for Preschool Children

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the presence of a therapy dog would affect the performance of a set of gross motor skills tasks for a mixed group of language-impaired and typical preschool children. The 14 children in the group were between four and six years old (four female and ten male); the two dogs were Miniature Poodles. The design was a two-way mixed model factorial, where a series of 10 gross motor skills tasks (e.g., long jump, high jump—labeled Type of Task) performed by the children served as one variable, and the presence or absence of the therapy dog (labeled Dog Presence) served as the other variable. In the dog-present conditions, the dog either performed the task immediately prior to, or at the same time as, the child. Time to complete each task and the accuracy of task performance as determined by a rating scale were determined from a review of experiment videotapes. The main effect of Dog Presence was significant (F_(1,36) = 7.471, p < 0.05, R² = 0.17). As predicted, the children completed the tasks faster when the dog was present (M = 10.88 s,SD = 9.84) than when the dog was absent (M = 13.86 s,SD = 12.64), but this effect was not present in the ratings data. This indicates that the presence of a therapy dog served as an effective motivator for the children, who performed faster, but without compromising accuracy, in all tasks but one. The interaction between dog presence and type of task was also significant (F_(9,71) = 3.67, p < 0.05, R² = 0.32) in the ratings data, indicating that the presence of the dog increased performance accuracy in some types of tasks, while decreasing it in others. Based on these results and the strong connection between motor skills and language development, the authors recommend a role for therapy dogs in speech and language development programs for preschool children.     

Employee Attitudes about the Impact of Visitation Dogs on a College Campus

Therapy and visitation dogs are becoming more common on college campuses to provide comfort and support to students, but little attention has been given to the concerns of faculty and staff who share space with the dogs in their workplaces. The purpose of this study was to assess the perceptions of faculty and staff with regard to both the benefits and the hazards (e.g., dander, bites, fleas) and risks associated with the presence of visitation dogs in their workplaces. One hundred and thirty-eight employees who worked in buildings with resident visitation dogs completed an online survey about their perceptions of the hazards and risks of the dogs and the effects of dogs on the wellbeing of both students and employees. In general, employees perceived that the dogs presented minimal risks, and most employees believed that they can reduce stress and provide comfort to students on campus. There were a few employees, however, who reported that the dogs did not improve the work environment and conferred no benefits to the staff or students. The findings of the present survey support the mostly positive attitudes that people have for dogs in the workplace, but they also highlight a potential challenge: accommodating individuals who believe very strongly that dogs do not belong in work environments.     

A Randomized Cross-over Exploratory Study of the Effect of Visiting Therapy Dogs on College Student Stress Before Final Exams

This exploratory study investigated the effect of visiting therapy dogs on college-student perceived and physiological stress the week prior to final exams. Students (n = 78) were randomly assigned to order of a therapydog intervention and attention-control condition, each 15 minutes long. Students completed the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), a stress visual analog scale (SVAS), and provided saliva for measuring nerve growth factor (sNGF) and alpha amylase (sAA), prior to randomization. Saliva samples and SVAS were again collected after each condition. There was no effect of group order on demographics, PSS, or initial SVAS. Repeated measures models were used to analyze the complete data sets of 57 students. There were no significant differences in sAA between or within students completing the intervention and control conditions. sNGF was not subjected to analysis as most levels were undetectable. Significant differences in SVAS scores were found between the intervention and control condition, with large effect sizes. SVAS scores were lower following the intervention, regardless of condition order (intervention first, p = 0.0001, d = 1.87; intervention second, p = 0.0004, d = 1.63). No SVAS differences were found for the control condition. Based on these findings, campus events with visiting therapy dogs represent a costeffective, easily accessible activity to reduce perceived, but not physiological, stress for college students prior to final exams.     

The Psychological and Physiological Effects of Using a Therapy Dog in Mindfulness Training

ABSTRACT

The present study was a randomized controlled trial examining the psychological and physiological effects of adding animal-assisted therapy (AAT) to a modified Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction program (MBSR) for clients experiencing psychological distress. It was hypothesized that AAT would complement mindfulness-based interventions because the therapy dog will provide a focus for attention to the current experience and exemplify acceptance and “being,” enabling the understanding and practice of the main aspects of mindfulness. Participants (n=21) were randomly assigned to an MBSR or MBSR+AAT group and then completed an intervention consisting of six 50-minute individual therapy sessions. Each session included didactic and experiential components modified for delivery with or without a certified therapy dog. State and trait mindfulness, psychological distress measures, blood pressure, and heart rate were assessed at each session. Results indicate that all participants experienced fewer anxiety and depressive symptoms, decreased psychological distress, and increased mindfulness skills from preto post-treatment. Additionally, state anxiety, blood pressure, and heart rate decreased within sessions. No significant difference was found between the control and experimental groups, indicating that interaction with a therapy dog had no impact on symptom reduction, skill acquisition, or client satisfaction in the current study. However, moderate to large effect size estimates indicate clinically significant differences between groups, with higher ratings for the MBSR+AAT group on therapist efficacy, recommending the training, and participating in future treatment. Future studies need to increase methodological rigor by including multiple therapist/dog teams and increasing sample size. Moreover, researchers must more thoroughly examine the role the dog might have in altering the social environment, such as reducing stigma surrounding mental health services and enhancing the therapeutic alliance.     

远程护理管理对经皮冠状动脉介入治疗术后患者心理状态与生活质量的影响

目的:探讨远程护理管理对经皮冠状动脉介入治疗(PCI)术后患者心理状态与生活质量的影响。方法:选取52例PCI术后患者,随机分为照组和试验组,各26例,对照组给予常规护理,试验组在对照组基础上采用远程护理管理进行干预。采用Zung焦虑自评量表(SAS)、抑郁自评量表(SDS)评价两组患者心理状态,并用社会功能缺陷筛选量表(SDSS)对两组患者生活质量进行评价。结果:两组患者干预前SAS、SDS、SDSS评分无差异,实施干预后,两组患者均有SAS、SDS、SDSS评分下降、但试验组患者SAS、SDS、SDSS评分下降更明显,与对照组比较,差异有统计学意义(P0.01)。结论:远程护理管理有助于改善PCI术后患者焦虑、抑郁负性情绪,提高生活质量。     

Turning the Page for Spot: The Potential of Therapy Dogs to Support Reading Motivation Among Young Children

ABSTRACT

This study investigated whether dogs might facilitate a context conducive to reading for children when they are faced with a challenging reading passage. A within-subjects design was used to assess children’s motivation to read in two conditions: with a therapy dog and without a therapy dog. Seventeen children (8 girls; 9 boys) in Grades 1 to 3 (aged 6–8 years) and their parents participated in this study. Results of a multivariate repeated-measures ANOVA with two levels suggested that the presence of a therapy dog positively impacted children’s reading motivation and persistence when they were faced with the task of reading a challenging passage. Specifically, children confirmed feeling significantly more interested and more competent when reading in the presence (versus absence) of a therapy dog. Additionally, participants spent significantly more time reading in the presence of the therapy dog than when they read without the therapy dog present. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to use a within-subjects design to explore children’s reading motivation and reading persistence during a canine-assisted reading task. Moreover, as canine-assisted reading interventions assume that the reading context is one that may present a challenge, this research is unique because the reading passages were carefully selected and assigned to each participant to ensure that each child was provided with a challenging reading task. This research holds implications for the development of a gold-standard canine-assisted intervention for young struggling readers.     

Hounds and Homesickness: The Effects of an Animal-assisted Therapeutic Intervention for First-Year University Students

Transitioning from high school to university can prove to be a for midable challenge for many first-year students, with many experiencing home sickness. Given that students who experience homesickness are more likely than their non-homesick cohorts to drop out of university, universities have a vested interest in supporting students during their first-year transition. Programs that provide opportunities for human–animal interactions on campus are gaining popularity as one way of increasing students’ wellbeing. The current study examined the effects of an 8-week animal-assisted therapy (AAT) program on first-year university students’ wellbeing. An initial feasibility study (n = 86) was conducted that provided opportunities for students to interact, in small groups, with trained therapy dogs and their volunteer handlers. Results indicated that this program reduced participants’ levels of homesickness and increased their satisfaction with life. An experimental study was then conducted utilizing a similar 8-week group AAT program. Participants (n = 44) were assigned to either a treatment condition (i.e., the AAT program) or to a no-treatment condition (akin to a wait-list control). At the end of the eight weeks, participants in the AAT program reported greater reductions in homesickness and greater increases in satisfaction with life than did those in the no-treatment condition. From beginning to end of the program, participants in the treatment group evidenced reductions in homesickness and increases in satisfaction with life and connectedness to campus, while participants in the no-treatment condition evidenced an increase in homesickness and no changes in satisfaction with life and connectedness to campus. Results of both the feasibility study and the experimental study support the use of AAT programs to increase the wellbeing of first-year university students experiencing homesickness.     

Methodological issues in studying the anxiety-reducing effects of animals: Reflections from a pediatric dental study

Abstract

This article reports observations made during a study investigating the role of a therapy dog in reducing anxiety in urban children visiting the dentist. The design and execution of the study were affected by methodological issues such as the reaction of urban children to the dog in the clinic, the tools used to measure anxiety in the children, the age and pet-ownership status of the children, and the personality of the therapy dog. Suggestions made for researchers designing similar studies include allowing children to become comfortable with the therapy dog before beginning formal data collection, working with younger children who have made fewer visits to the dentist, and using or developing more accurate tools for measuring behavioral and physiological anxiety.     

Living and Robotic Dogs as Elicitors of Social Communication Behavior and Regulated Emotional Responding in Individuals with Autism and Severe Language Delay: A Preliminary Comparative Study

The inclusion of animals and robots in therapeutic interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) has become more common. This study provides a first comparison between the potential of living versus robotic dogs to elicit social communication behavior and regulated emotional responses in individuals with ASD. Ten children and thirteen adults with ASD and severe lan- guage delay were tested for appropriate social communication behavior and cardiac autonomic functioning during a planned, structured interaction with an experimenter alone (no-stimulus condition), an experimenter accompanied by a living dog (dog condition), and an experimenter accompanied by a robotic dog (robot condition). A within-subjects design was followed to expose all participants to all three experimental conditions. Overall, participants (children and adults) showed a higher percentage of appropriate social behaviors in Living and Robotic Dogs as Elicitors of Social Communication Behavior and Regulated Emotional?…?the dog and the robot conditions than in the no-stimulus condition. In children, the living dog was more effective than the robotic dog in promoting social communication behavior. In adults, no such difference was found between the dog and the robot condition. Only the dog appeared to elicit a positive effect in cardiac autonomic functioning by increasing heart rate variability (HRV) and buffer- ing the decrease in parasympathetic activity due to interaction with the experimenter. The data are preliminary but relevant and warrant replication in larger-scale studies.     

Impact of different groups of swimmers on dolphins in swim-with-the-dolphin programs in two settings

Abstract

In recent years, dolphin-assisted therapy has become very popular, and an increasing number of facilities worldwide are offering therapy programs that incorporate dolphins. We observed 83 sessions with five dolphins at “Dolphins Plus,” USA, and 37 sessions with 13 dolphins at “Dolphin Reef.” Israel, during unstructured swim-with-the-dolphin programs. Both facilities are fenced sea pens with ocean water. Our detailed observations focused on contact and distance behaviors between dolphins and amongst dolphins with different groups of human swimmers: adults, children and children with mental and physical disabilities at “Dolphins Plus,” and adults only at “Dolphin Reef.” The dolphins at “Dolphins Plus” showed some signs of stress such as avoidance, speed increase, higher metabolism and intensification of a subgroup. These signs were most evident when the dolphins were with adult swimmers. In contrast, the dolphins at “Dolphin Reef” seemed to be attracted to adult swimmers. We will discuss these opposing findings with reference to the different housing conditions. Our results indicate that limited space results in a reduction of the dolphins' attraction for swimmers.     

Interaction with Shelter Dogs Reduces Negative Affect of Adolescents in Substance Use Disorder Treatment

We investigated the effectiveness of a human–animal interaction program, involving dogs from an animal shelter, in improving affect of adolescent males in inpatient treatment for substance use disorder (SUD). We hypothesized that adolescents would experience improvements in affect and attitudes toward activities when participating in human–dog interaction activities (dog-interaction condition) compared with “treatment-as-is” recreational activities (control condition). Participants were assigned to weekly 1-h-long condition activities for 8 weeks (4 weeks per condition). Due to attrition, only the participants’ first and second exposures to each condition were evaluated. Using a withinand between-subjects, repeated measures crossover design, we assessed effects of the two conditions on affective states as indexed by Positive and Negative Affect Scale-Expanded Form (PANAS-X) subscales (mixed linear model, n = 12). Attitudes toward doginteraction and control activities were assessed using a researcher-generated survey (ordered logistic regression, n = 14, mean age = 16.2 years). Condition impacted Hostility (F_(1,31) = 6.55, p < 0.05) and Sadness (F_(1,41) = 4.62, p < 0.05) subscale scores; scores were higher following the control condition and lower following the dog-interaction condition. There was a carryover effect of condition in the previous activity session on Sadness scores during the current activity session (F_(1,41) = 4.32, p < 0.05), suggesting that the prior session experience affected current expectations. In the attitudes survey, the dog-interaction condition elicited more positive responses than the control condition (X² ≥ 4.10, df = 1, p < 0.05). From this exploratory study, we conclude that the dog-interaction activities induced an improvement in affect, specifically within dimensions of negative affect, and participants had a more favorable attitude toward the dog activities than the treatment-as-is activities. Offering activities involving interaction with shelter dogs thus shows promise as a useful method for restoring responsiveness to naturally reinforcing (non-substance-related) affective stimuli in adolescents with SUD.     

Behavioral effects of the presence of a dog in a classroom

Abstract

To test the idea that dogs have a positive influence on the social behavior of school children, one of three dogs was introduced alternately into a class at an elementary school in Vienna, attended by 24 children (mean age: 6.7 years). Most of the 14 boys and ten girls came from first-generation immigrant families. With parental consent, their behavior was videotaped for two hours every week, during “open teaching situations,” first during a one-month control period in the absence of dogs, followed by an experimental period of similar duration, when a dog was present in the classroom. Frequency and duration of all observable behaviors of individuals and their interactions were coded from these tapes. Although major individual differences were found in the children's interest in the dog and their behavioral responses, the group became socially more homogenous due to decreased behavioral extremes, such as aggressiveness and hyperactivity; also, formerly withdrawn individuals became socially more integrated. Effects were more pronounced in the boys than the girls. Even though the children spent considerable time watching and making contacting with the dog, they also paid more attention to the teacher. We conclude that the presence of a dog in a classroom could positively stimulate social cohesion in children and provide a relatively cheap and easy means of improving teaching conditions.     

The effects of group and individual animal-assisted therapy on loneliness in residents of long-term care facilities

Abstract

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) has been shown to reduce the loneliness of residents in long-term care facilities (LTCFs). In this study, we determined the relative contribution of socialization (human–human bonding) and human–animal bonding as mechanisms by which AAT reduces loneliness. Residents in LTCFs volunteering for AAT were randomized to receive AAT as individuals (Individual) or in groups of two to four (Group). Individual AAT was used as a measure of animal–human bonding, and Group AAT was used as a measure of the combination of animal–human bonding and socialization. Any greater effect of Group AAT in comparison to Individual AAT would be ascribed to socialization. Thirty-seven residents of LTCFs, who were cognitively intact, volunteered for AAT, and scored as significantly lonely on the UCLA Loneliness Scale (Version 3), were studied. Six weeks of AAT, one 30-minute session per week, in an individual or group setting was performed, with posttesting during week five. Two residents dropped out of each group, giving us group sizes of 17 (Individual) and 16 (Group). A two-way ANOVA showed a statistically significant effect of pretest vs. posttest scores (F_(1,31) = 25.3, p < 0.001), with no effect of Group vs. Individual or of interaction. Newman Keuls post-hoc tests showed that the pretest scores for Individual and Group participants did not differ. There was a significant difference between pretest and posttest scores for Individual participants (p < 0.05) but not for Group participants. There was no difference between the posttest values for Individual vs. Group. When the data from all 33 participants were combined, Delta scores (pretest minus posttest), correlated positively (p < 0.01) with pretest scores, showing that lonelier individuals benefited more from AAT. In conclusion, AAT was more effective in improving loneliness in residents of LTCFs when given individually than in a group situation. Therefore, the main effect of AAT was not mediated by socialization.     

Theory of mind and the social brain: implications for understanding the genetic basis of schizophrenia

Genome‐wide association studies in schizophrenia have recently made significant progress in our understanding of the complex genetic architecture of this disorder. Many genetic loci have been identified and now require functional investigation. One approach involves studying their correlation with neuroimaging and neurocognitive endophenotypes. Theory of Mind (ToM) deficits are well established in schizophrenia and they appear to fulfill criteria for being considered an endophenotype. We aim to review the behavioral and neuroimaging‐based studies of ToM in schizophrenia, assess its suitability as an endophenotype, discuss current findings, and propose future research directions. Suitable research articles were sourced from a comprehensive literature search and from references identified through other studies. ToM deficits are repeatable, stable, and heritable: First‐episode patients, those in remission and unaffected relatives all show deficits. Activation and structural differences in brain regions believed important for ToM are also consistently reported in schizophrenia patients at all stages of illness, although no research to date has examined unaffected relatives. Studies using ToM as an endophenotype are providing interesting genetic associations with both single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and specific copy number variations (CNVs) such as the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. We conclude that ToM is an important cognitive endophenotype for consideration in future studies addressing the complex genetic architecture of schizophrenia, and may help identify more homogeneous clinical sub‐types for further study     

Feeding heterogeneity in ciliate populations: Effects of culture age and nutritional state

We have used a novel approach in conjunction with flow cytometry to quantify the biological heterogeneity of populations of the ciliate Tetrahymena pyriformis. It was found that the rate of particle uptake of exponentially growing cells is not uniform among cells and partially correlated with cell size. The physiological state and growth history of the culture was found to affect to a large degree the population's feeding heterogeneity. Stationary phase populations exhibited more uniform feeding behavior, as cell aging affects all cells and effectively reduces their ability to feed. Cells that were removed from the growth medium and resuspended in nonnutritive medium exhibited a more heterogeneous feeding behavior. The starved cells were stimulated to feed at considerably higher rates, and the stimulatory effect was more pronounced for larger cells. It is therefore demonstrated that population heterogeneity has to be evaluated in conjunction with the populations growth state as it is determined by the history of the population's growth and nutritional state. (c) 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Effects of cell state and staining on femtosecond laser nanosurgery

Femtosecond laser nanosurgery enables precise manipulation of subcellular elements to study regeneration. However, currently it is not frequently employed—probably because of its unknown consequences on the whole cell level. To better understand the associated biological response of the cell, especially in the context of different cell states and cell staining, we manipulated C2C12 myoblasts and myotubes, which were either unstained (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide signal) or stained with MitoTracker Red. Both signals overlap well and stain similar areas in untreated cells. We chose 3 different cutting lengths and performed surgery in the cytosol along the major cell axis. The cuts resealed within several minutes independent of the cutting length. We analyzed cell area, perimeter, major and minor axis on long term. We observed significant changes in the cell area and perimeter, dependent on the staining and more pronounced in differentiated myotubes. We conclude, that laser parameters must be chosen carefully, depending on the staining of the cell, its (differentiation) state, and the extent of the cut region, such that unwanted cell responses can be avoided. Laser manipulation of C2C12 myotubes with small ablation (0.8 μm) and large ablation (3.0 μm). While small damages recover, larger damages lead to elimination from the syncytium. Scale bar: 20 μm.      

The Effects of an Animal-Assisted Intervention on Salivary Alpha-Amylase,Salivary Immunoglobulin A,and Heart Rate during Forensic Interviews in Child Sexual Abuse Cases

Animal-assisted invention (AAI) in gaining attention as a therapeutic modality; however, the effect of it has not been well studied in the child welfare system. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of AAI on stress indicators (as measured by salivary alpha-amylase (sAA), immunoglobulin A (IgA), and heart rate) in children undergoing forensic interviews for alleged sexual abuse. A repeated measures design was used in this study. Upon receiving signed, informed consents and assents, children were enrolled in the study. Children (n = 42), whose ages ranged from 5 to 14 years (M = 8.91, SD = 2.33), were assigned to either the intervention condition (n = 19; AAI during forensic interview) or the control condition (n = 23; standard practice forensic interview). Each child's parent/guardian completed a demographic form, and saliva samples and heart rate measures were obtained from each child before and after the forensic interview. Mixed linear models were tested, with the level of significance set at p ≤ 0.05. There was an interactive effect regarding the duration of the interview and the presence of the dog on sAA after the forensic interview (p = 0.047). There also was a significant interaction between age and length of interview (p = 0.01). Salivary immunoglobulin A tended to be lower (p = 0.055) when the therapy dog was present during the forensic interview. Results further indicated that the drop in heart rate was greater in longer interviews and with older children (p = 0.02) when the dog was present. Individuals working in child welfare systems can use the results of this study to advocate for the use of therapy dogs as a therapeutic intervention. More research is needed to further examine the relationships among AAI, salivary biomarkers, and stress responses in children to improve child welfare.