The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

Responsiveness and perceived intelligence as predictors of speech addressed to cats

Abstract

Speech addressed to a cat was examined to test whether the use of child-directed language (CDL) with a companion animal is related to perceived intelligence of a listener and/or listener responsiveness. Fifty-one undergraduates briefly entertained a cat using a toy, and the vast majority of these participants spoke to the animal. The language used was similar to CDL, and two aspects of this language (number of questions and attribution of thoughts to the animal) were positively related to ratings of the animal's intelligence. The cat's responsiveness, as measured by time spent in proximity of the participant during the interaction, was not strongly correlated with measures of speech use. The results suggest that speech used with companion animals follows a model in which the human first perceives a social interaction, and therefore uses speech. This speech is then modified, based on the perceived comprehension of the listener, regardless of who this listener may be.     

Pet Ownership and the Importance of Pets Among Adolescents

ABSTRACT

Pet ownership and the importance of one's pet were examined in a community-based, multi-ethnic sample of adolescents, age 12 to 17 years. Half of the adolescents lived in households with pets where ownership was more common among Whites, teens living in detached single family homes, and among teens in households with annual incomes above $40,000. Ratings of importance of one's pet varied as a function of racial/ethnic group and income. Additionally, the absence of siblings in the household, having sole responsibility for one's pet, and owning a cat or dog were associated with higher levels of pet importance. The considerable variability as a function of race/ethnicity in the likelihood of owning a pet, and the nature of the adolescent's relationship to his/her pet, indicates that future research would benefit by utilizing diverse samples and by attempting to determine why the role of pets in the family is a culturally bound phenomenon.     

Labradors to Persians: Perceptions of pets in the workplace

Abstract

This article reports the findings of a study examining the effects of the presence of pets in an office on people's perceptions of the work environment, the company, and the people who work there. Participants were 482 college students from a medium-sized university in the Southeast who were randomly assigned to view a slide of an office that contained one of six breeds of dogs, one of four breeds of cats, or no animal at all, and then completed a survey. Results indicated that pets are perceived to improve the moods of both customers and employees, to increase social interaction, and to make the employees appear less busy. However, they do make an office appear less professional and less clean and safe. There were few differences in perceptions based upon the various breeds of cats and dogs, with the exception of shorthaired black cats, which were generally rated less favorably.     

Children and Their Pets

Abstract

This study examines the frequency of pet possession and its covariation with family variables (family size, housing conditions, parents' employment, maternal support) among elementary school children. Additionally, children's pet caring activities and their emotional relationship to pets were investigated. Subjects were 426 fourth graders (213 boys, 213 girls). Results indicate that pets are very frequently present in families, with the dog as the most common and most preferred animal. Parents' employment and maternal support do not covariate with pet possession, but housing conditions do. The child-pet relationship depends on childrens' gender, pet type and status of ownership (child vs. family). The intensity of pet caring is mainly related to pet type and ownership, whereas the quality of emotional contact depends on pet type and childrens' gender. On the background of manifold articles reporting case studies and educational, respectively clinical counseling experiences the discussion emphasizes the need for sound empirical research on the relationship between personality characteristics and pet ownership.     

Perception of Animals and Cardiovascular Responses During Verbalization With an Animal Present

Abstract

The presence of animals has been associated with decreased physiological responses to stressors. Not all individuals respond equally to the presence of friendly animals. The current study was designed to examine whether attitudes toward animals are related to individuals' physiological responses when an animal is present. The relationship of individuals' perceptions of animals to their blood pressure and heart rate responses during verbalization in the presence of a dog were examined among urban college students (n=218). Lockwood's projective Animal Thematic Apperception Test (ATAT) was used to assess subjects' attitudes toward animals and people in scenes containing animals and identical scenes without animals. The significant period by perception interactions in analyses of variance with repeated measures revealed that cardiovascular responses to verbalization with an animal present were significantly lower for individuals who perceived scenes with animals more positively than for individuals who perceived scenes with animals present less positively. Cardiovascular responses when the dog was present were not related to perceptions of scenes without animals present. The differences in cardiovascular responses depended upon the scenes used. This study supports the view that how people perceive animals moderates their physiological responses to stressors when an animal is present.     

Psychometric Properties of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale: Mexican Version (LAPS-M)

The Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS) is perhaps the most widely used instrument to assess human emotional attachments to pets and is suitable for both dog and cat owners. However, this instrument has not been translated into Spanish. Thus, the present study aimed to assess the psychometric properties of the Mexican version of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS-M), which was translated into Spanish and adapted for dog owners. We analyzed the internal consistency and factor structure in a convenience sample of 152 people; 56.6% were women and 43.4% were men, with a mean age of 32.4 years (SD = 10.9 years), who had, on average, two dogs for a period of 3.8 years. The results indicate that the scale has excellent internal consistency in its complete version, with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.96, and also in its three subscales, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from 0.83 to 0.94. Factor analysis suggests a unifactorial structure is appropriate. However, the goodness-of-fit indicated by confirmatory factor analysis statistics would likely improve with a larger sample size. When we compared the central tendency measures of the LAPS-M according to the type of relationship with the dog, we found higher scores among people who considered dogs to be family members than among those who considered dogs to be pets. Furthermore, people who reported that the relationship with their dog was burdensome or stressful had lower scores. We conclude that the Mexican version of the LAPS is adequate and that further studies with larger sample sizes will contribute to the evidence regarding its psychometric properties     

宠物的福利和管理

＂家庭动物＂或＂伴侣动物＂的提法较＂宠物＂而言,更为确切并规范。伴侣动物往往因为种种原因成为城镇的流浪动物,在一定程度上,已经成为社会问题。遗弃宠物的原因尽管多种多样,深层次原因主要还是伦理道德的缺失。流浪动物日益泛滥,正在拷问人类的精神文明,有必要引起全社会的关注。动物福利在当今社会已不仅仅是概念化的一般性号召,一些发达国家出版的动物法典对犬、猫的福利有专题阐述。法典不仅对伴侣动物的各种福利条件作了具体规定,同时还提出了最低标准和最佳方案。本文以犬的食物饲喂、饮水及犬舍的要求为例,逐一介绍。     

A Pilot Study to Evaluate an Elementary School-Based Dog Bite Prevention Program

ABSTRACT

The primary objective of this program evaluation was to determine if a school-based education program is an effective means of informing elementary school-aged children enrolled in second through fourth grades about dog bite safety—the awareness of proper behavior when in the company of dogs to prevent bites, injuries, or fatalities. The pilot program, featuring written materials and a video, was developed to teach dog bite safety, and questionnaires were designed to assess the program. Students (n=486) from seven schools from Montgomery and Prince George's Counties in Maryland, USA participated. Pre- and post-program questionnaires assessed students' interactions, encounters, and relationships with dogs, as well as use of program materials, and changes in understanding about dog behavior, body language, and bite avoidance. The program results appeared to be highly effective in helping children understand how to prevent or avoid potentially threatening situations involving dogs. The program was most effective at teaching children that: (1) neighborhood and family dogs are most likely to cause dog bite-related injuries, (2) they should never run away from a dog, and (3) they should never touch a dog that is sleeping or eating. For most groups, there was also an increased level of recognition of canine body language. Almost half of the participants indicated that they had been bitten in the past, and over 80% knew the attacking dog. Finally, the findings suggest that an age-appropriate dog bite safety program delivered in an elementary school setting can be effective in producing awareness about preventing dog bite-related injuries. Future investigations should concentrate on monitoring actual changes in child behavior.     

Psychometric Evaluation of the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (Laps)

Abstract

This paper reports on the development and psychometric evaluation of a scale for assessing emotional attachment of individuals to their pets. Previous attachment scales have suffered variously from low internal consistency and reliance on small or nonrepresentative samples for their development. Telephone interviews of a random, representative sample of 412 pet owners in Fayette County, Kentucky, were completed in September 1990; a 69.5 percent response rate was achieved. From a preliminary set of 42 questions, a final 23-question instrument, the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale (LAPS), was developed, having excellent psychometric properties. The scale is suitable for use with dog and cat owners. Data on internal consistency, factor structure, and item response theory (IRT) modeling are presented, along with correlations between the LAPS and several domains of variables known to relate to pet attachment.     

How dogs influence the evaluation of psychotherapists

Abstract

Research has shown that the presence of a companion animal reduces anxiety, encourages interaction among humans and enhances the way in which people are perceived. These are all effects which would be useful in a psychotherapeutic setting. On this basis the current study investigated the effect of the presence of a dog on the way in which people perceive psychotherapists. The study utilized an experimental design in which participants viewed a videotape of one of two therapists who were either with or without a dog. It was hypothesized that people would respond more positively to the psychotherapists when accompanied by a dog; specifically, that they would be more generally satisfied and would be more willing to disclose personal information, and that these effects would be influenced by attitudes towards pets. The first two hypotheses were confirmed. The effect was most pronounced among those who were the least positive toward the psychotherapist, demonstrating a ceiling effect. Contrary to the last hypothesis, attitudes toward pets had no influence on the perceptions of psychotherapists. History of pet ownership had only minimal impact on the results. Practical applications and directions for further research are discussed.     

The Influence of Companion Animals on Owner Perception: Gender and Species Effects

ABSTRACT

There is some evidence that the presence of a companion animal influences perceptions of the psychological attributes of its owner. The present study investigated how these effects vary by pet species and owner gender. A sample of 542 students rated slides of a man or woman accompanied by a cat, a dog or alone using 36 adjectives. These adjectives were subsequently grouped into four clusters labelled ‘Nice’, ‘Nasty’, ‘Style’ and ‘Action’. Statistical analyses revealed that the female target person was rated as significantly nicer, more stylish and more active with the dog than with the cat. The male target person was rated as nicer, more stylish and more active with the cat than the dog. This pattern was contrary to that hypothesized, which was based on traditional gender and human-pet stereotypes. Discussion focuses on the changing nature of gender stereotypes and the resulting complexity of owner-pet perceptions.     

The Canine Cuteness Effect: Owner-Perceived Cuteness as a Predictor of Human–Dog Relationship Quality

ABSTRACT

The modern domestic dog's primary function is as a human companion. A strong human–dog relationship may be beneficial to both parties but not all relationships are successful. There is currently no consensus on why some dog–owner relationships flourish and others fail, but relationship quality may be partly influenced by canine characteristics. The extent to which canine cuteness and canine personality factors predict human–dog relationship quality was examined. In study 1, 668 dog owners completed two relationship-quality surveys, rated their dog's personality and physical cuteness, and were invited to submit a photograph of their dog. Personality measures and cuteness ratings predicted each measure of relationship quality, with cuteness being the strongest unique predictor in three of seven standard multiple regression models (all p<0.001). In study 2, 873 independent participants were presented with one of 42 images selected from those provided in study 1. Participants rated the dog's cuteness and its likely personality attributes. Strangers (M=6.69, SD=0.83) typically rated each dog as being less cute than did the owner (M=8.93, SD=1.80; t(41₎=7.39, p<0.001, two tailed), and how cute they perceived the dog to be influenced their ratings of some aspects of its likely personality. Measures of relationship quality provided by owners were not significantly associated with stranger cuteness ratings or with the degree of difference between owner and stranger cuteness ratings. These results suggest a bi-directional relationship between perceived cuteness and other attributes: cute dogs are perceived to have more desirable personality traits, but having a strong relationship with a dog may also inflate its perceived cuteness. These findings have implications for those involved in dog breeding, selection, and training, as well as shelter management.     

Children with pets do not show higher empathy: A challenge to current views

Abstract

A group of children (n=137) were surveyed with respect to pet ownership and pet preferences to explore the link between the human–animal bond and empathy. The most notable findings—and contrary to our predictions—were: (1) there was no difference in empathy (Bryan Empathy Index) between pet owners and non-owners; (2) there was no correlation between empathy and attachment to pets (Companion Animal Bonding Scale); and (3) higher empathy scores were not related to pet-preference indicators. A more fine-grained examination of the pet-owning group only revealed differences with respect to type of animal owned. Higher empathy was evident with dog ownership as opposed to other pet types. However, this needs to be tempered by the equally interesting observation that lower empathy was related to cat ownership. Regardless of how ownership groups are configured, there is consistent evidence that differentiates cat owners (lower empathy) from dog owners (higher empathy). When pet ownership and pet preference are combined to form new groupings, again, the cat effects and dog effects are evident. Implications extend to the need: (1) for future research on the nature of the human–animal bond; (2) to explore the relationship between personality and animal bonding; and (3) to refine the questions surrounding the animal-based links to empathy, as well as other related constructs such as prosocial behaviour, compassion, self-esteem, self-control, autonomy, affection, stress, responsibility, and perhaps even emotional intelligence, career paths and community service.     

Pet's Presence and Owner's Blood Pressures during the Daily Lives of Pet Owners with Pre- to Mild Hypertension

ABSTRACT

As the population ages the number of older adults living with hypertension (HTN) is rising dramatically. Uncontrolled HTN increases cardiovascular and renal mortality. Ambulatory (A) blood pressure (BP) is a better predictor of HTN-related morbidity and mortality than office BP. Lower BP is the most important therapeutic goal in treating HTN. Any reduction in BP has significant benefits for older adults. The current study was designed to evaluate the impact of the presence of pet dogs and cats on ABP during the daily lives of independently living, older pet owners with pre- to mild HTN. A repeated measures observational study of ABP of 32 pet owners (21 dogs, 8 cats, 3 cat and dog; 29 women) aged 50–83 years with BP 120–150/80–100 mmHg or < 150/100 with anti-hypertensive medication was conducted. Owner's ABPs were recorded every 20 minutes for one day during waking hours at study entry, one month, and three months. Activity monitors and diaries were used to obtain information about activity, mood, and whether the pet and/or another person was present in the room (indoors) or in close proximity (outdoors) with the owner at each assessment. Generalized estimating equation (GEE) analyses for hierarchical data (unstructured correlations) were performed for systolic and diastolic ABP. Mean ABPs were significantly (systolic BP/diastolic BP: dog p = 0.008/ p = 0.002; cat p < 0.009/ p < 0.001) different (systolic BP/diastolic BP mmHg: dog 3.1/1.5; cat –3.0/2.2) when pets were present after controlling for participant's mood (p > 0.05/ p < 0.001), activity intensity (p = 0.026/ p = 0.441), location (p = 0.013/ p = 0.004), and the presence of other people (p = 0.947/ p = 0.723). The presence of a dog was associated with lower systolic and diastolic BP and of a cat was associated with lower diastolic BP and higher systolic BP during their owners' normal daily lives. This finding suggests that pets, especially dogs, may be effective as an adjunctive intervention to slow the development or progression of HTN in older adults. Comparison of ABPs of pet owners with non-owners during their daily lives is warranted and underway.     

A Comparison of Attachment Levels of Adopters of Cats: Fee-Based Adoptions Versus Free Adoptions

Nonhuman animal welfare professionals have been critical of adoption programs that do not charge a fee for adult cats, despite the high euthanasia rate for cats due to a reported lack of homes. The argument against the free cat adoptions cites a devaluation of the cat, which may affect the adopter's perceived value of the cat and subsequent care. It may also attract low-income adopters who are perceived as unable to fulfill the financial responsibility of acting as caregiver (owner) of a companion animal (pet). This study examined adopters' attachment to their cats in relation to the payment or waiver of an adoption fee using the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale and perception of the shelter. No significant differences were found between groups on either measure. Programs such as this create an opportunity to positively affect cats in animal shelters by finding more homes; programs such as this also affect cat overpopulation by putting more altered cats into the community.