Attitude to Animals and Empathy: Comparing Animal Protection and General Community Samples

ABSTRACT

Although a number of studies have examined a range of demographic and personality variables that may impact upon attitudes towards the treatment of non-human species, little consensus has been reached within the literature. The aim of the current study was to evaluate and assess levels of human-directed empathy and attitudes towards the treatment of animals in two diverse populations, namely the general community (n = 543) and those within the animal protection field (n = 389). Both groups of participants completed the Attitude Towards the Treatment of Animals Scale (AAS) and the Davis Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), a measure of human-directed empathy. Comparisons between the two samples indicated that those within the animal protection community scored more highly on both the animal attitude and human-directed empathy measures. Correlational analyses revealed a positive relation between AAS and IRI scores for both samples, whilst the strength of the correlation was greater for those within the animal protection sample. These findings are discussed.     

Empathic Differences in Adults as a Function of Childhood and Adult Pet Ownership and Pet Type

ABSTRACT

Prompted by interesting but ambiguous findings that empathic differences in children may relate to pet preference and ownership, we extended the issue to an adult population. We investigated empathic-type responses in adults who lived with cats and/or dogs in childhood (Child-Pet) and currently (Adult-Pet), using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), the Empathy Quotient (EQ), and the Animal Attitude Scale (AAS). Multivariate analyses of covariance, with Sex as the covariate (MANCOVA), revealed differences on the AAS, the IRI-Personal Distress scale, and the EQ-Social Skills factor. For the Child-Pet data, the Dog-Only and the Both (dog and cat) groups, compared with those in the Neither (no dog or cat) group, scored lower on the IRI-Personal Distress scale and higher on the EQ-Social Skills factor. On the AAS, all three pet groups (Dog-Only, Cat-Only, and Both) had higher ratings than the Neither group. For Adult-Pet data, the analyses revealed the Dog-Only group was lower on Personal Distress than the Neither group, and higher on Social Skills than the Neither group and the Cat-Only group. On the AAS, the Neither group was lower than all three pet-owning groups, like the childhood data, but strikingly, adults with both dogs and cats were higher on the AAS. The findings support research linking companion animals with empathic development. They warrant the continued exploration of the nature of empathic development (i.e., nature vs. nurture) and contribute to the increasing research field exploring the value of companion animals.     

The Emotional Lives of Companion Animals: Attachment and Subjective Claims by Owners of Cats and Dogs

There is a growing body of scientific evidence supporting the existence of emotions in nonhuman animals. Companion-animal owners show a strong connection and attachment to their animals and readily assign emotions to them. In this paper we present information on how the attachment level of companion-animal owners correlates with their attribution of emotions to their companion cat or dog and their attribution of mirrored emotions. The results of an online questionnaire, completed by 1,023 Dutch-speaking cat and/or dog owners (mainly in the Netherlands and Belgium), suggest that owners attribute several emotions to their pets. Respondents attributed all posited basic (anger, joy [happiness], fear, surprise, disgust, and sadness) and complex (shame, jealousy, disappointment, and compassion) emotions to their companion animals, with a general trend toward basic emotions (with the exception of sadness) being more commonly attributed than complex emotions. All pet owners showed strong attachment to their companion animal(s), with the degree of attachment (of both cat and dog owners) varying significantly with education level and gender. Owners who ascribed human characteristics to their dog or cat also scored higher on the Pet Bonding Scale (PBS). Finally, owners who found it pleasant to pet their dog or cat had a higher average PBS score than those who did not like to do so. The relationship between owners’ attributions of mirrored emotions and the degree of attachment to dogs was significant for all emotions, whilst for cats this relationship was significant only for joy, sadness, surprise, shame, disappointment, and compassion.     

Human-Directed Empathy and Attitudes Toward Animal Use: A Survey of Spanish Veterinary Students

Veterinary practitioners are thought of as guardians of animal health and wellbeing, and are considered important in the development of policies on animals. Measuring veterinary students’ attitudes toward animals and animal use is needed when assessing the effectiveness of education programs focused on animal welfare and ethics. The present study examined Spanish veterinary students’ attitudes toward different types of animal use, their human-directed empathy, and the relationship between these and various personal variables. The sample comprised 200 students who completed an online questionnaire. Attitudes toward animal use varied significantly, depending on the type of use in question. There was also a relationship between attitudes toward animal use, one component of human-directed empathy, “Empathic Concern,” and a number of personal variables such as gender, career choice, and contact with animal welfare organizations. Concern about the use of animals for research and animal management was lower in students who were in the later years of their studies. Reasons for this and the role of veterinary education are discussed.     

Animal Suffering: Representations and the Act of Looking

Animal advocacy uses images of nonhuman suffering as a form of normative rhetoric and a method of persuasion. Although much attention has been given to various facets of the depiction of human suffering, images of animal suffering have, to a large extent, escaped closer scrutiny. This paper seeks to remedy the situation by investigating four issues—the risk of aesthetics, the risk of perpetuating moral wrongs, the problem of privacy, and compassion fatigue—as they relate to images of farmed animal suffering. The paper will argue that images of nonhuman suffering are in danger of being interpreted as a form of visual intrigue, and that they invite seldom-asked questions concerning the justification of the act of looking, together with the privacy of nonhuman animals. Moreover, it will be maintained that compassion fatigue commonly affects how these images are perceived. Making use of the views of Susan Sontag, J. M. Coetzee, and Stanley Cohen (among others), it will be argued that, in order to escape the problematic connotations and consequences of the aforementioned issues, a normative dimension pointing toward action must be explicated.     

Choosing between the Emotional Dog and the Rational Pal: A Moral Dilemma with a Tail

ABSTRACT

Neuroscientific studies indicate moral cognition involves a cognitive struggle between two systems in the brain: the emotional “hot” system and the rational “cold” system. Past research has shown that when presented with personal dilemmas, individuals showed greater brain activity in the hot system areas. However, when further probed about their decisions, moral dumbfounding often occurs. Family selection may help explain moral judgments. Oftentimes, people consider their pets as part of their family. Based on the past research on moral decision-making, the current study presented a novel approach to exploring moral decision-making by forcing participants to choose to save the life between biological family and psychological-kin. Participants (n = 573) were given moral dilemmas and forced to decide whether to save humans or pets from imminent death. The level of relationship between the human shifted six times (foreign tourist, hometown stranger, distant cousin, best friend, grandparent, and sibling), while relationship to the pet had two levels (your pet, someone else's pet). Willingness to save a pet over a human consistently decreased as level of relationship between the participant and the human in the scenario increased. Participants were also more likely to save their own pet over a human life than someone else's pet over a human life. The results suggest that pets are often viewed as psychological-kin. Females were found to be more likely to save their pets over non-immediate family members than males (all ps < 0.05), suggesting that males and females may differ in the structure of their moral reasoning.     

大学毕业生压力应对的性别差异研究

采用"压力应对方式问卷"对陕西师范大学148名大四毕业生进行调查,结果发现:(1)大学毕业生面临压力时以积极应对方式为主;(2)大学毕业生在消极应对因素上存在显著的性别差异,女生高于男生;在积极应对因素上不存在性别差异;(3)大学毕业生在解决问题、求助取向、自责、幻想、合理化这5个应对因子上不存在性别差异,而在退避这一应对因子上存在显著的性别差异,女生高于男生。     

Cognitive differences in dream content between Argentine males and females using quantitative content analysis.

This study asked the question, "Are there significant content differences between male and female dream reports obtained in seminars conducted in Argentina?" Each of the 100 female and 100 male participants contributed one recent dream report during dream seminars held in Argentina between 1990 and 1998. Dream reports were scored using Hall and Van de Castle's System of Content Analysis. Major findings revealed that Argentine males reported significantly more aggressions per character and a higher percentage of dreamers as the aggressor than reported by females. They also reported more dreams with at least one success than reported by females. In contrast, females scored significantly higher on both the Self-Negativity index and the Negative Emotions index compared to males. Although some findings were similar to past studies using American participants, others were unique to this study and may be attributable to the particular sample used, or may suggest actual underlying cultural patterns of contemporary Argentine men and women. Results are discussed in terms of Hall's continuity hypothesis and Domhoff's cognitive model of dreaming. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Animal Protection Measures in Taiwan: Taiwanese Attitudes Toward the Animal Protection Law and Animal Shelters

This study used a questionnaire, self-administered by 387 Taiwanese citizens, to assess Taiwanese perception and knowledge of the Animal Protection Law and perception and use of animal shelters. Most respondents (87%) knew that Taiwan has legal protection for animals. A –5 to 5 summary score measured knowledge of companion animal dog-related legal requirements. The median score was 3, indicating that almost all respondents had inadequate knowledge about these requirements. Although more dog caregivers had adequate knowledge of the law than did nondog caregivers (prevalence ratio = 1.9, 95% confidence interval: 1.1, 3.2), only 19% had adequate knowledge. Although most respondents (81%) knew Taiwan has animal shelters, only 19 (5%) reported visiting or participating in shelter activities. Only 6 (32%) of shelter visitors or users had a "good or better" impression of services received. Despite low usage of animal shelters, most respondents thought shelters should accept (87%) and relocate (90%) unwanted animals, capture strays (64%), assist in finding lost pets (79%), and educate the public about responsible ownership (85%). More than half (52%) thought shelters should perform euthanasia.     

Zoo Animal Welfare: The Human Dimension

ABSTRACT

Standards and policies intended to safeguard nonhuman animal welfare, whether in zoos, farms, or laboratories, have tended to emphasize features of the physical environment. However, research has now made it clear that very different welfare outcomes are commonly seen in facilities using similar environments or conforming to the same animal welfare requirements. This wide variation is almost certainly due, at least in part, to the important effects of the actions of animal care staff on animal welfare. Drawing mostly on the farm animal literature, we propose that this “human dimension” of animal welfare involves seven components: (1) positive human–animal interaction, (2) consistency and familiarity of keepers, (3) treating animals as individuals and taking account of their personalities, (4) the attitudes and personalities of keepers, (5) the keepers’ knowledge and experience, (6) the keepers’ own well-being, and (7) the influence of facility design on how keepers and others interact with the animals. We suggest that attention to these human factors provides major scope for improving the welfare of animals in zoos.     

Gender Differences in the Relationship between Personality Dimensions and Relative Body Weight

Objective: The relationship between body mass index (BMI: kg/m²) and personality seems to differ for men and women, although these effects may be driven by the extremes of the BMI distribution. It is unclear whether these associations exist for most individuals in the relatively normal range of BMI scores, excluding the thinnest and heaviest extremes in the population. We tested the association of BMI with neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism with a trimmed BMI sample. Research Methods and Procedures: Using a cross‐sectional design, we tested the association of BMI with the aforementioned psychological variables in a British population‐based sample. Participants were 7889 adult men and women (30 to 50 years old) selectively sampled from four counties in west England. Participants reported their height and weight and completed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPQ). We tested the association of BMI with the EPQ subscales among individuals with BMI ≥19.16 kg/m² and ≤37.78 kg/m², i.e., the approximate 5th and 95th percentiles. Results: Despite elimination of extreme BMIs, different associations between BMI and EPQ subscales emerged for men and women. Among women, increasing BMI was significantly associated with increased neuroticism and reduced extraversion. Among men, increasing BMI was associated with increased extraversion and psychoticism. In all cases, the magnitude of the association was very small. Discussion: Increasing BMI was associated with potentially poorer adjustment among women but better adjustment among men. These findings are consistent with recent reports and, taken together, suggest that these patterns are not accounted for solely by the extremes of the BMI distribution.     

动物生物反应器建立的主要方法与技术

本文在查阅大量国内外相关资料的基础上,结合具体的实验操作原理和规程,就建立动物生物反应器模型的方法与技术、转基因动物的应用和转基因动物存在的问题等进行了概括性的论述。其目的在于为进一步探讨转基因的科学原理、最佳操作方法和技术,提高转基因的效率,建立理想的动物生物反应器等奠定基础。     

Changing Attitudes and Animal Welfare in Small Island Developing States: Dogs on New Providence,The Bahamas

This article compares results from a study in 2014 with a similar study from 1998 (Fielding, 1999 Fielding, W. J. (1999). Perceptions of owned and unowned animals: A case study from New Providence. Bahamas Journal of Science, 6(2), 17–22. [Google Scholar]) to examine changes in the care of dogs in New Providence, The Bahamas. The results from a survey of 379 residents indicated a general lack of improvement in matters associated with the care of dogs during the past 16 years. For example, in 1998, it was estimated that 35% of caregivers had at least 1 dog sterilized, and in 2014, the corresponding figure was 37%. In 1998, 14% of households with dogs allowed their dogs to roam compared with 41.7% in 2014. These observations do not indicate inactivity on behalf of nonhuman animal welfare groups or archaic animal welfare legislation, as free spay/neuter campaigns have occurred and stricter laws have been passed since 1998. Rather, it is conjectured that these findings may reflect not only insufficiently sustained and coordinated initiatives in education, access to welfare interventions, and law enforcement, but also as-yet-unknown inadequacies in the approaches used in this cultural setting.     

Differences in Resting Metabolic Rate between White and African‐American Young Adults

Objective: A reported lower resting metabolic rate (RMR) in African‐American women than in white women could explain the higher prevalence of obesity in the former group. Little information is available on RMR in African‐American men. Research Methods and Procedures: We assessed RMR by indirect calorimetry and body composition by DXA in 395 adults ages 28 to 40 years (100 African‐American men, 95 white men, 94 African‐American women, and 106 white women), recruited from participants in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA), Birmingham, Alabama, and Oakland, California, field centers. Results: Using linear models, fat‐free mass, fat mass, visceral fat, and age were significantly related to RMR, but the usual level of physical activity was not. After adjustment for these variables, mean RMR was significantly higher in whites (1665.07 ± 10.78 kcal/d) than in African Americans (1585.05 ± 11.02 kcal/d) by 80 ± 16 kcal/d (p < 0.0001). The ethnic × gender interaction was not significant (p = 0.9512), indicating that the difference in RMR between African‐American and white subjects was similar for men and women. Discussion: RMR is ～5% higher in white than in African‐American participants in CARDIA. The difference was the same for men and women and for lean and obese individuals. The prevalence of obesity is not higher in African‐American men than in white men. Because of these reasons, we believe that RMR differences are unlikely to be a primary explanation for why African‐American women are more prone to obesity than white women.     

规范实验动物设施管理,提高科研服务质量

实验动物设施是医院科学研究的技术平台。如何利用有限的资源,全面提高实验动物中心科研服务水平是管理者亟待解决的问题。本文通过总结第四军医大学口腔医院实验动物中心的规范化建设及管理,探索提高实验动物中心运行效率和科研服务质量的方法。     

The Coldest Dog and Pony Show on Earth: Animal Welfare on the First Expeditions to Reach the South Pole

ABSTRACT

The expeditions to reach the South Pole mounted by Scott, Amundsen, and others between 1901 and 1912 have attracted considerable scholarly effort. These expeditions all took draught animals, which were key to the success or failure of the missions. Much of the literature in this field is highly partisan, focusing on the relative merits of Scott and Amundsen: the fates of their animals have received little attention except as ammunition for one side or another of this very polarized discourse. This paper describes the treatment of the dogs and ponies taken as draught animals on the expeditions led by Scott and Amundsen. These expeditions were planned such that animals would be used to pull sledges and slaughtered when required for food, or when the food for the animals ran out. Each of these expeditions is shown to have engaged in cruel practices and to have caused some animals extreme suffering. Scott's and Amundsen's management of their animals are compared. Amundsen kept close oversight of the care of the animals whereas Scott tended to delegate, with the results that on occasions Scott's animals did not receive timely attention and suffered as a result. Scott had reservations about using dogs because he viewed them mainly as intelligent companion animals. He had difficulties viewing dogs as working animals that might suffer, or as potential food, but no apparent reservations about using ponies in such ways. Amundsen's attitudes towards the dogs on his expedition and the animals' welfare outcomes are closely examined in this paper in the light of previous contentions that Amundsen was a serial animal abuser. While Amundsen also saw dogs as companions, he viewed them as draught animals and/or food sources as he felt his circumstances warranted. It is shown that outrage at the fates of Amundsen's dogs rests within past hagiographic endeavors in addition to modern western beliefs that dogs are pets, not draught animals; and from Western attitudes towards the consumption of dog flesh.