Factors affecting the Human Attribution of Emotions toward Animals

ABSTRACT

Attribution of emotions to animals can affect human–animal interactions and dictate animal welfare laws. However, little is known about the factors that influence these attributions. We investigated the effect of belief in animal mind, pet ownership, emotional intelligence, eating orientation, and gender on the attribution of different emotions to a variety of species, from different taxonomic classes, considered as Pet, Use (e.g., used for food, experimentation), or Pest animals. Three hundred and forty-seven participants, aged between 16 and 65 years, completed a questionnaire that measured their belief in the capacity for animals to experience seven primary and secondary emotions. The results showed that attribution of emotions to animals is inconsistent. The ambiguity appears to hinge, in part, upon an animal's functional category and their perceived place in the commonly supposed, though inaccurate, linear hierarchy of species. Nonetheless, the wide range of emotions that were attributed to all species highlights the complex and potentially disorganized thoughts that humans have concerning animals. Belief in animal mind was found to be the strongest and only predictor of emotion attribution to animals in general, but is probably because both are part of the same underlying construct. Ownership of some species—rabbits, horses, rodents and birds—mediated the emotions attributed to that particular species. We conclude that ambiguous attitudes influence the standards of welfare for animals used by humans and that the dichotomous attitudes permit exploitation and welfare violations against animals. Greater understanding of emotion attribution has the potential to improve humane education methods, and suggestions for future research are made.     

Wild Minds: What People Think about Animal Thinking

ABSTRACT

The question of how nonhuman animals think is pervasive in the scientific and popular media, yet there is an apparent lack of concordance between findings from research in animal cognition and how this information emerges in popular discourse. The present study investigated the way people conceive of animal thinking, in order to inform the development of an exhibit on animal minds that will address this issue and foster a deeper connection between people and animals. This two-part, sequential study of perceptions of animal thinking used qualitative interviews of visitors to the New York Hall of Science and Staten Island Zoo to develop a quantitative, online consumer survey of American museum visitors. The results show that American museum visitors vary in their perceptions of animal thinking, but appear to be open to new ideas about how animals might think. Participants' responses to the interviews revealed they could easily recognize survival strategies in wild animals, but had reservations about discussions of empathy, deception, and awareness. In addition, animals kept as pets or companion animals in Western culture were commonly perceived to have higher cognitive capacities for thinking than food or other domestic animals. Participants' responses to the online consumer survey appeared to focus on an overall concept of animal thinking, rather than different cognitive dimensions. Although participants were generally neutral in their responses, demographic analysis revealed participants who had dogs and/or cats, a college education, or watched nature shows were more likely to support the belief that animals can think. Participants who had children at home were less likely to support this belief. Further research is needed to determine how different kinds of thought processes are understood by general audiences and how demographic factors might influence perceptions of animal thinking.     

Painfully Aware: The Effects of Dissonance on Attitudes toward Factory Farming

ABSTRACT

We examine the moderating effects of cognitive dissonance on the persuasiveness of a message designed to influence attitudes and behaviors supportive of intensive-production animal agriculture, or “factory farming.” Existing research on human attitudes toward nonhuman animals indicates that generic disapproval of their suffering gratuitously at human hands is a social norm. However, studies also reveal an absence of related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors seemingly implied by this stance. Such apparent inconsistencies may persist due to lack of awareness about and/or engagement with the issue of farm animal welfare. We used a two-group, between-subjects experimental design, and the subject pool consisted of 62 non-vegetarian university students. Following random assignment to either the commitment condition or a non-commitment control group, all participants received an informational booklet arguing for the prevalence of neglect and abuse in industrial animal agriculture. Commitment participants, however, first responded privately to a dichotomous, single-item questionnaire, either agreeing or disagreeing that “animals should not suffer needlessly in the production of meat.” Given that the need to resolve or avoid self-contradiction can motivate attitudinal realignment, we hypothesized that an educational intervention would be more sympathetically received by individuals who had already volunteered support for its central premise, than by those never invited to adopt a stance. Results supporting three of four hypotheses indicated significantly heightened receptivity to an anti-factory farming message following commitment to a pro-welfare position. Commitment participants tended to be more open to eating less meat, concerned with the issue, and accepting of the message's basic claims. A fourth hypothesis was not supported: participants across groups were ambivalent about source credibility. We infer that animal advocacy efforts may more effectively generate public support for the cause by framing appeals to capitalize on what polls show most people already believe (i.e., that animal cruelty ought to be prevented).     

Are Animals Just Noisy Machines?: Louis Boutan and the Co-invention of Animal and Child Psychology in the French Third Republic

Historians of science have only just begun to sample the wealth of different approaches to the study of animal behavior undertaken in the twentieth century. To date, more attention has been given to Lorenzian ethology and American behaviorism than to other work and traditions, but different approaches are equally worthy of the historian’s attention, reflecting not only the broader range of questions that could be asked about animal behavior and the “animal mind” but also the different contexts in which these questions were important. One such approach is that represented by the work of the French zoologist Louis Boutan (1859–1934). This paper explores the intellectual and cultural history of Boutan’s work on animal language and the animal mind, and contextualizes the place of animal behavior studies within late-nineteenth-and early-twentieth-century French biology. I explore the ways in which Boutan addressed the philosophical issue of whether language was necessary for abstract thought and show how he shifted from the idea that animals were endowed with a purely affective language to the notion that of they were capable of “rudimentary” reasoning. I argue that the scientific and broader socio-cultural contexts in which Boutan operated played a role in this transition. Then I show how Boutan’s linguistic and psychological experiments with a gibbon and children provide insights into his conception of “naturalness.” Although Boutan reared his gibbon at home and studied it in the controlled environment of his laboratory, he continued to identify its behavior as “natural.” I specifically demonstrate the importance of the milieu of the French Third Republic in shaping Boutan’s understanding not only of animal intelligence and child education, but also his definition of nature. Finally, I argue that Boutan’s studies on the primate mind provide us with a lens through which we can examine the co-invention of animal and child psychology in early-twentieth-century France.     

Empathy and Belief in the Mental Experience of Animals

ABSTRACT

Aspects of empathy are examined, including the relationship between empathy and perceived similarity or identification. Cognitive judgments of similarity appear to predispose us to the experience of empathy. An important aspect of similarity where animals are concerned is their perceived mental endowment (Fenton & Hills 1988). Therefore, a positive relationship was hypothesized between empathy for animals and “belief in animal mind” (i.e., beliefs about the extent to which animals have awareness, thoughts, and feelings). In a sample comprising three groups (animal rights supporters, farmers, and urban public) the expected relationship was found, r(153) = .47, p < .001; however, it was not consistent across the subject groups. Analysis suggested that the relationship between perceived similarity and empathy is mediated by conflicting instrumental motivations. Implications of the results for humane and environmental education are discussed.     

Centring individual animals to improve research and citation practices

Modern behavioural scientists have come to acknowledge that individual animals may respond differently to the same stimuli and that the quality of welfare and lived experience can affect behavioural responses. However, much of the foundational research in behavioural science lacked awareness of the effect of both welfare and individuality on data, bringing their results into question. This oversight is rarely addressed when citing seminal works as their findings are considered crucial to our understanding of animal behaviour. Furthermore, more recent research may reflect this lack of awareness by replication of earlier methods – exacerbating the problem. The purpose of this review is threefold. First, we critique seminal papers in animal behaviour as a model for re-examining past experiments, attending to gaps in knowledge or concern about how welfare may have affected results. Second, we propose a means to cite past and future research in a way that is transparent and conscious of the abovementioned problems. Third, we propose a method of transparent reporting for future behaviour research that (i) improves replicability, (ii) accounts for individuality of non-human participants, and (iii) considers the impact of the animals' welfare on the validity of the science. With this combined approach, we aim both to advance the conversation surrounding behaviour scholarship while also serving to drive open engagement in future science.     

Animal Humanness,Animal Use,and Intention to Become Ethical Vegetarian or Ethical Vegan

The present study used relational and predictive approaches to build on past literature examining humanlike animal attributes. From the relational approach, it examined how five humanlike attributes ascribed to animals (Attributes Questionnaire) relate to one another and to attitudes toward 21 uses of animals (Attitudes Toward the Use of Animals Scale). From the predictive approach, it examined the predictive power of human affection toward animals and human perception of animal minds for granting animals moral consideration; additionally, it analyzed the predictive power of humanlike animal attributes for willingness to become an ethical vegetarian or ethical vegan. These analyses focused specifically on gender differences. The author used SPSS and SmartPLS 3.0, a Partial Least Square tool, for statistical analyses. Results from 481 Spanish university students responding to online and pencil-and-paper questionnaires revealed overall moderate correlations between different humanlike attributes and low correlations between those attributes and animal uses. Affection toward animals and perception of animal minds were good predictors for moral consideration of animals, especially when all four attributes were aggregated in the model (R² = 0.47; Q² = 0.32). Humanlike animal attributes directly affected students’ intentions to become vegetarian and vegan but the explanatory power was weak in both cases (R² < 0.19; Q² < 0.15). The study also revealed significant gender differences. Among women, humanlike animal attributes were more closely interrelated, better correlated with a greater number of animal uses, and stronger drivers of the moral status of animals. However, data showed no significant gender differences for path strength of humanlike animal attributes on the willingness to become vegetarian or vegan. In sum, perceiving humanlike attributes in animals has ethical consequences, but its influence on the adoption of pro-animal attitudes and behavior are still unclear. More research is needed to explore and explain causal relationships between the aforementioned variables and to uncover how gender differences may affect them.     

A Study of Custer-Washita River Foci Relationships

Abstract

A review of Custer and Washita River foci relationships and origins as seen by earlier workers is presented. Data nowavailable is then considered in an attempt to illustrate the nature of the relationship between these foci. A consideration of changes in ceramic styles, frequencies of certain bone tools, and of radiocarbon dates suggests a continuum of development between the Custer and Washita River foci. This continuum, based on a Plains Woodland complex, sees the early horticulturalists of the Custer focus giving rise to the later Washita River focus peoples. The continuum hypothesis is presented with the need for further documentation in mind.     

Public Attitude Formation Regarding Animal Research

ABSTRACT

A number of attitudinal studies have examined support for the use of animals in research. However, on the whole they have come to rather different conclusions. In our research, which is based on focus group discussions held in Denmark, we attempted to explain this variation by examining the way the relevant attitudes are formed. Although our participants had only limited knowledge of, and interest in, animal use in research, they were perfectly capable of developing reasoned attitudes to it by drawing on evaluative considerations concerning animal use in general. Furthermore, the evaluation of animal research involves a distinct experience of value conflict—between the possible human benefits, on one hand, and a concern for costs to the animal, on the other. Different ways of dealing with this conflict gives rise to different attitudinal stances on animal research: Disapprovers, Reserved, and Approvers. These stances, and their supporting lines of argument, are rather robust, as they are grounded in stable underlying values. However, at the same time they leave room for variable evaluations of different types of animal experiment. This facilitates shifts between disapproval and approval, especially for the Reserved who experience ambivalence. Future quantitative analyses should take into consideration that attitudes in the field of animal experimentation can be viewed (and measured) both at an underlying value-based level and at a context-specific level.     

Childhood Experiences with Family Pets and Internalizing Symptoms in Early Adulthood

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether childhood experiences with family pets are associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety in early adulthood. Undergraduate students (n=318) responded to an online survey that included questions about bonding with childhood pets, exposure to family violence and human aggression directed toward family pets in childhood, and current symptoms of depression and anxiety. Two-way ANCOVAs were conducted with a measure of childhood emotional abuse included as a covariate, and significant interactions were observed between pet bonding and exposure to aggression toward pets (pet aggression). Among participants with medium-level bonds, those who were exposed to pet aggression had significantly higher depression and anxiety scores than those who were not exposed to pet aggression. Among participants who were not exposed to pet aggression, those with medium-level bonds had lower depression and anxiety scores than those with low-level bonds. Bearing in mind the limitations of the research design, the results are consistent with the assertion that bonding with pets may support mental health and that exposure to animal cruelty may lead to the development of internalizing symptoms. The results also support the contention that both bonding with pets and exposure to pet aggression should be considered when investigating the association between experiences with pets and mental health. Interventions for the protection of children may be indicated in cases of animal cruelty. Social workers who investigate child maltreatment may be advised to refer children who are exposed to animal cruelty for counseling. Clinicians should consider addressing issues that arise from exposure to pet aggression during the therapeutic process.     

Advances in Applied Zoo Animal Welfare Science

ABSTRACT

Nonhuman animal welfare science is the scientific study of the welfare state of animals that attempts to make inferences about how animals feel from their behavior, endocrine function, and/or signs of physical health. These welfare measurements are applicable within zoos yet inherently more complex than in farms and laboratories. This complexity is due to the vast number of species housed, lack of fundamental biological information, and relatively lower sample sizes and levels of experimental control. This article summarizes the invited presentations on the topic of “Advances in Applied Animal Welfare Science,” given at the Fourth Global Animal Welfare Congress held jointly by the Detroit Zoological Society and the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums in 2017. The article focuses on current trends in research on zoo animal welfare under the following themes: (a) human–animal interactions and relationships, (b) anticipatory behavior, (c) cognitive enrichment, (d) behavioral biology, and (e) reproductive and population management. It highlights areas in which further advancements in zoo animal welfare science are needed and the challenges that may be faced in doing so.     

Attitudes,knowledge and wild animals as pets in Costa Rica

Abstract

A nationwide survey in Costa Rica, using Kellert's conceptual framework (Kellert, S. R. 1996. The Value of Life. Washington D.C., Island Press), revealed at least five attitude dimensions toward animals. Overall, Costa Rican adults have a strong sentimental attitude toward animals, an expression of feelings of affection toward animals. In contrast, the materialistic attitude, which regards animals as resources and praises acts of control over them, is weak. This reflects a prevailing opposition to the act of hunting per se, rather than to its potentially detrimental effect on natural populations. There is a strong inquisitive attitude, corresponding to a widespread interest in learning about the biology of animals and their habitats. High scores on the ethical attitude indicate concern for the ethical treatment of animals and nature. The schematic attitude emphasizes the role of aesthetic appearance in the preferences for certain animals and acknowledges feelings of aversion, dislike or fear of some animals. Scores for this attitude were weakly positive. The attitude profile of Costa Ricans is probably incomplete, given the small battery of questions used in this study and differences between this and Kellert's study in the assignment of questions to particular attitudes resulting from the factor analysis. Aesthetic appeal of the animals, compassion, affection and a desire to please and stimulate the children are important motives for the acquisition of wild animals as pets. These positive feelings and a misguided empathy for animals backfire by condemning these pets to an alien environment and inadequate care. The current study also showed that adults who keep wildlife have better biological knowledge than those who never kept wildlife as pets. In addition, Costa Ricans ranked highest in the percentage of correct answers to five questions about animals, in comparison to Kellert's data for US and Japanese citizens (Kellert S.R. 1993. Journal of Social Issues 49: 53–69). Such knowledge of natural history and an animal protection profile, however, do not translate into more animal friendly practices, as seen by the keeping of wildlife as pets under conditions of concern. Rather than changing the attitudes of Costa Ricans toward animals, the challenge is to increase the awareness about the animals' needs and thereby trigger the ethical concern for their well-being.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

Stem cells in animal asthma models: a systematic review

Background aimsAsthma control frequently falls short of the goals set in international guidelines. Treatment options for patients with poorly controlled asthma despite inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting β-agonists are limited, and new therapeutic options are needed. Stem cell therapy is promising for a variety of disorders but there has been no human clinical trial of stem cell therapy for asthma. We aimed to systematically review the literature regarding the potential benefits of stem cell therapy in animal models of asthma to determine whether a human trial is warranted.MethodsThe MEDLINE and Embase databases were searched for original studies of stem cell therapy in animal asthma models.ResultsNineteen studies were selected. They were found to be heterogeneous in their design. Mesenchymal stromal cells were used before sensitization with an allergen, before challenge with the allergen and after challenge, most frequently with ovalbumin, and mainly in BALB/c mice. Stem cell therapy resulted in a reduction of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid inflammation and eosinophilia as well as Th2 cytokines such as interleukin-4 and interleukin-5. Improvement in histopathology such as peribronchial and perivascular inflammation, epithelial thickness, goblet cell hyperplasia and smooth muscle layer thickening was universal. Several studies showed a reduction in airway hyper-responsiveness.ConclusionsStem cell therapy decreases eosinophilic and Th2 inflammation and is effective in several phases of the allergic response in animal asthma models. Further study is warranted, up to human clinical trials.     

Challenges of Compassionate Conservation

ABSTRACT

The substantial and urgent threats to the prosperity of individual nonhuman animals and the survival of species necessitate a changed approach to conservation. The current practice of seeing conservation and animal welfare as contradictory goals is not helpful. It is proposed that the approach should bring together parties to address the common root causes and to find innovative ways to accommodate multiple interests by translating beautifully written and ethically complex theories into pragmatic tools. Compassionate conservation provides a contemporary framework for animal welfare professionals and ecologists to develop new approaches. Simple tools can help in identifying areas of agreement and areas of dispute. While engaging with both ethics and animal welfare science will move animal welfare discussions forward, working together will identify shared values and goals and perhaps reveal ways to save species, one animal at a time, before it is too late.     

Empathy,home environment,and attitudes toward animals in relation to animal abuse

Abstract

Recent years have seen an increase in interest in the social, behavioral, psychological, and developmental correlates of animal abuse. The current study examined the relationships between empathy, family environment, attitudes toward animals and participation in animal abuse using a self-report methodology among a sample of college students. Within a sample of 286 college students, scores on the Attitudes Toward the Treatment of Animals Scale (ATTAS) were significantly correlated with scores on the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), a measure of empathy. The Caregiving subscale of the ATTAS was found to significantly differentiate abusers from non-abusers, and to differentiate abusers who reported having first engaged in abuse prior to age 13 years from those who reported having first engaged in abuse at age 13 or later. Abusers scored significantly higher on the IRI Fantasy subscale than did non-abusers. Men who reported a history of sexual abuse were more likely to report participating in animal abuse than were those who reported no history of sexual abuse. Finally, the effect of sexual abuse on animal abuse was found to be independent of individual differences in empathy and attitudes toward animals. The potential roles of trauma and fantasy in the genesis of animal abuse are discussed.     

The identification of the seeds and fruits of common Scottish aquatic herbs

Background: There have been few quantitative observations of the attributes of native animal paths and no studies of their variation between vegetation types. These paths may be important in extending the local ranges of plant species.

Aims: To determine the incidence, cover and characteristics of native animal paths in different vegetation types, their relationships with other variables and the influence of paths on plant species distributions.

Methods: Randomly located line transects, and paired quadrats on and adjacent to paths, were used to record path and environmental attributes at 10 sites in each of 10 vegetation types. The relationships between path cover, number, width and depth and potential predictor variables were determined by using Pearsons product moment correlation.

Results: The mean cover of paths in plant communities varied between 6.5% and 12.6%. Path cover, number, width and depth varied between vegetation types. Penetration resistance, bare ground, scat density and plant species richness had higher values in path quadrats than in controls. Within particular vegetation types, several plant species were restricted to paths.

Conclusions: Animal trampling is an important influence on vegetation structure and the distribution of plant species in the study area.