Social Effects of a Dog's Presence on Children with Disabilities

ABSTRACT

Productive and positive interactions between dogs and humans have been documented in studies using dogs trained as companion animals and as assistants for people with disabilities. In this study, the effects of the presence of a dog on social interactions between three 5–9-year-old children with developmental disabilities and their teacher at an elementary school were analyzed. A single-case experimental design with repeated measures and with replicated effects across participants was employed to assess changes in interactions from baseline to an intervention condition. During baseline, interactions were assessed in the social environment of a room adjacent to the classroom, which had a toy dog and other play materials, during time with the teacher. The experimental change introduced sequentially and systematically across the participants was the additional presence of an obedience-trained dog, a German Shepherd/Labrador Retriever cross. Interactions between the children and their teacher were examined during morning sessions using reliable direct observation interval recording procedures. All participants demonstrated an increase in overall positive initiated behaviors (verbal and non-verbal) toward both the teacher and the dog. The children also showed an overall decrease in negative initiated behaviors. In addition, observational ratings showed positive generalization of improved social responsiveness by the children in their classroom following the completion of the experimental sessions. This study supports the position that children with developmental disabilities benefit from the use of skilled dogs as teaching assistants and therapeutic adjuncts.     

Physical Activity and Welfare of Guide Dogs and Walking Activity of Their Partners

ABSTRACT

Appropriate physical activity is beneficial for physical and psychosocial wellbeing, and it is recommended for people to have 30 minutes of activity on most days of the week, to yield 150 minutes per week. Getting sufficient physical activity particularly challenges people with visual disabilities, and few health-promotion interventions have focused on adults with this disability. Recently, dog walking has been promoted in communities as a way to increase people's physical activity. We surveyed guide-dog partners to assess whether their guide dogs facilitated walking. We also assessed the welfare of these dogs, including their physical activity and social interactions with other dogs and people, especially as there is some concern that these dogs have too little freedom. For comparison, we assessed large and small companion dogs and their handlers, as well. A web-based survey was conducted among people living with guide dogs or companion (pet) dogs: large companion dogs (51 lb or more) and small companion dogs (50 lb or less). Guide-dog partners walked significantly more than handlers of either small or large companion dogs (Guide-dog partners met the healthy standard of 150 min per week of walking, at a level 10 times more than owners of large companion dogs). Guide dogs walked with their partners more frequently and for longer durations per day than owners of companion dogs. Guide dogs with their handlers met more people outside of their homes than did owners of companion dogs, but the groups did not differ in the number of dogs they greeted outside of the house. The frequencies of going to off-leash areas did not differ among the three groups. The findings indicate that having a dog as a guide can lead to a higher amount of walking among guide-dog partners, and that guide dogs have a higher quality of life, in terms of quantity of physical activity and social interactions, compared with large or small companion dogs.     

An Example of a Monkey Assistance Program: P.A.S.T. - The French Project of Simian Help to Quadriplegics

ABSTRACT

All animal-assisted therapy programs raise ethical issues. These ethical issues are even more important when non-domesticated animals are used to help humans with disabilities. In their 1991 review, Iannuzzi and Rowan mentioned programs which use capuchin monkeys to help quadriplegics. The lack of technical or scientific information concerning these programs leads to misinformation. This paper describes the French Project (P.A.S.T. - Programme d'Aide Simienne aux personnes Tétraplégiques) which evaluates whether trained capuchin monkeys could be efficient helpers and companions to quadriplegic persons.     

Stone Throwing as a Sexual Display in Wild Female Bearded Capuchin Monkeys,Sapajus libidinosus

Capuchin monkeys (Sapajus spp.) in captive settings frequently manipulate and throw objects. In the wild, they may push or drop stones and sticks toward targets during inter- or intraspecific threat displays. In addition, female capuchin monkeys exhibit a broad repertoire of behaviors during their proceptive period, including facial expressions, vocalizations, stereotyped body postures, and touch-and-run behavior. This study reports stone throwing as a newly-described communicative behavior during the proceptive display of females in a group of bearded capuchin monkeys (S. libidinosus) in Serra da Capivara National Park, Brazil. During a two-year study, three females from one group were seen throwing stones at males during their proceptive phase. After this period, three other females in the same group exhibited the same behavior. Although it may be possible that this pattern is the result of several independent innovations by each female, the apparent absence of this behavior in other groups leads us to suggest that we have documented the diffusion of a new behavioral trait or tradition within this capuchin social group.     

Personal Features of Identification and Uniqueness in the Anthropological Field of Social Discourse

In this article, fashion is understood as a means by which an individual gains access and gradual establishment as a participant in a social environment. Fashion can be seen as the evolution of the expression of specific views on the external expression of a person’s common understanding. Then it is perceived too as an element of clothing and a person’s overall wardrobe. In a broader sense, as shown here, fashion is thought of as a social standard that is fulfilled only when it corresponds to a common cultural perception of the social order. The relevance is determined in particular by the fact that fashion is part of the mass culture and can form the appearance of a person.

Thus we understand fashion as part of mass culture, and its impact on the personal formation and development of people in the modern society becomes the subject of study. In particular, the set of fashion elements of youth is taken, in addition to development in the social environment itself.

The novelty of this study lies in determining that a person perceives fashion not only in the process of his/her professional development but also in the processes of developing their own emotional and personal status. Youth is most vulnerable to this. We have studied university students who were born during the phase of the post-Soviet state’s formation. For the first time results can be presented on the basis of the analysis of that generation, which determines their way of life after the transition period. A further direction and application of this study are in forming a link that will create a correlation between current fashion trends and the opportunities young people have for social adaptation.     

The facilitation of social interactions by domestic dogs

Abstract

Research suggests that dogs can facilitate social interactions, which, in turn, may promote psychological health. This study explored the ability of dogs to facilitate social responses relative to other accompaniments and investigated whether the social catalysis effect is generic or influenced by the appearance of the dog. The behavior of 1800 pedestrians approaching a female experimenter was recorded as a function of the presence of three dogs (Labrador Retriever pup, Labrador adult, Rottweiler adult) and two neutral stimuli (teddy bear, potted plant). The behavior of pedestrians approaching the woman whenever she was alone (control) was also explored. Information was collected on the passers-by’ gender, number of people in the party, type of acknowledgement elicited and length of conversations. More people ignored the experimenter whenever she was alone or with the teddy or plant, than whenever she was walking a dog. The Rottweiler resulted in more nonresponses than the puppy or adult Labrador, who in turn elicited more smiles and verbal responses. Females, and those alone, elicited more smiles and conversations than males, or those in pairs. It is concluded that dogs can facilitate social interactions between adults better than other accompaniments; however, the social catalysis effect is not generic, but dog specific.     

Determining the Value of Social Companionship to Captive Tufted Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella)

This study used a method similar to one introduced by Dawkins in 1990 to assess the magnitude of the psychological need for social companionship in pair-housed tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). This method permits classification of commodities as necessities or luxuries. The study directly compared the commodity of social companionship to the commodity of food, a known physiological necessity, in a series of preference tests following commodity deprivations. The majority of subjects chose their social companion over food at baseline and persisted in this preference even after several hours of food deprivation. In addition, subjects' preferences shifted from 1 commodity to the other with manipulation of social and food deprivation levels. Capuchin monkeys perceived social companionship as a necessity at a level similar to that of food.     

Assessing the effects of social environment on blood pressure and heart rates of baboons

The objective of this publication is to report on the feasibility of using a tether system for obtaining data on blood pressure and heart rates of socially housed primates and to evaluate the extent to which housing environment alters cardiovascular responses (mean arterial blood pressure and heart rate). Blood pressure and heart rates of adult male baboons (Papio cynocephalus hamadryas) were evaluated over a 6 week period under three different housing conditions: social companion, individual, and socially unfamiliar. Social environment was manipulated in a specially designed cage that incorporated removable panels of either woven wire or solid sheet metal. The design of the cage permitted nonhuman primates to engage in species-typical social behaviors such as grooming and aggression. Using a tether and catheter system, we monitored cardiovascular physiology. We tested the hypothesis that individual housing, housing with social companions, and housing with social strangers would produce different mean arterial blood pressure and heart rate responses. Individual housing and housing with strangers produced resting mean arterial blood pressures that were elevated relative to blood pressure responses with social companions. Individual housing and housing with social strangers produced different patterns of cardiovascular response. Individual housing resulted in lowered heart rates and elevated blood pressures relative to the social companion condition. Housing with social strangers resulted in both elevated blood pressure and elevated heart rate, relative to the social companion condition. Responses observed during this study demonstrated the sensitivity of blood pressure and heart rates to differences in social environment.     

Anointing variation across wild capuchin populations: a review of material preferences, bout frequency and anointing sociality in Cebus and Sapajus

The frequency of anointing bouts and the materials used for self- and social anointing vary across capuchin species in captivity, but there is little published data on capuchin anointing in the wild. Here we present previously unpublished data on anointing behaviors from capuchin monkey populations at ten different field sites and incorporate these data into a review of the anointing literature for captive and wild capuchins. Using a comparative phylogenetic framework, we test four hypotheses derived primarily from captive literature for variation in anointing between wild untufted capuchins (Cebus) and tufted capuchins (Sapajus), including that (1) the frequency of anointing is higher in Cebus, (2) Cebus uses a higher proportion of plant species to insect species for anointing compared with Sapajus, (3) anointing material diversity is higher in Cebus, and (4) social indices of anointing are higher in Cebus. We found that wild Cebus anoints more with plant parts, including fruits, whereas wild Sapajus anoints more with ants and other arthropods. Cebus capucinus in particular uses more plant species per site for anointing compared with other capuchins and may specialize in anointing as an activity independent from foraging, whereas most other capuchin species tend to eat the substances they use for anointing. In agreement with captive studies, we found evidence that wild Cebus anoints at a significantly higher frequency than Sapajus. However, contrary to the captive literature, we found no difference in the range of sociality for anointing between Cebus and Sapajus in the wild. We review anointing in the context of other Neotropical primate rubbing behaviors and consider the evidence for anointing as self-medication; as a mechanism for enhanced sociality; and as a behavioral response to chemical stimuli.     

Cross-genus adoption of a marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) by wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus): case report

We report a case of interspecies adoption of an infant marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) by wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus libidinosus). The marmoset was an infant when it was first observed in the capuchin group on 3 March 2004. Since it first appeared it has been observed informally and frequently. In January 2005 systematic observations were made of the marmoset and a capuchin of similar age. Throughout its period of adoption the marmoset appeared to be socially integrated into the group, benefiting from nurturant behaviors exhibited by two successive adoptive "mothers" and pronounced tolerance from all members of the group. This case highlights the flexibility of both Callithrix and Cebus in accommodating variable social behaviors and other characteristics (including size) of social partners.     

The Training of Pets as Therapy Dogs in a Women's Prison: A Pilot Study

Abstract

A Pets as Therapy [PAT] program was initiated in a women's prison to train companion dogs for the elderly and individuals with disabilities. The effect on the trainers was studied using an established depression scale and a self-esteem inventory. Results showed significant group changes in both these areas.     

Emotion Attribution to a Non-Humanoid Robot in Different Social Situations

In the last few years there was an increasing interest in building companion robots that interact in a socially acceptable way with humans. In order to interact in a meaningful way a robot has to convey intentionality and emotions of some sort in order to increase believability. We suggest that human-robot interaction should be considered as a specific form of inter-specific interaction and that human–animal interaction can provide a useful biological model for designing social robots. Dogs can provide a promising biological model since during the domestication process dogs were able to adapt to the human environment and to participate in complex social interactions. In this observational study we propose to design emotionally expressive behaviour of robots using the behaviour of dogs as inspiration and to test these dog-inspired robots with humans in inter-specific context. In two experiments (wizard-of-oz scenarios) we examined humans'' ability to recognize two basic and a secondary emotion expressed by a robot. In Experiment 1 we provided our companion robot with two kinds of emotional behaviour (“happiness” and “fear”), and studied whether people attribute the appropriate emotion to the robot, and interact with it accordingly. In Experiment 2 we investigated whether participants tend to attribute guilty behaviour to a robot in a relevant context by examining whether relying on the robot''s greeting behaviour human participants can detect if the robot transgressed a predetermined rule. Results of Experiment 1 showed that people readily attribute emotions to a social robot and interact with it in accordance with the expressed emotional behaviour. Results of Experiment 2 showed that people are able to recognize if the robot transgressed on the basis of its greeting behaviour. In summary, our findings showed that dog-inspired behaviour is a suitable medium for making people attribute emotional states to a non-humanoid robot.     

Preference for,and Responsiveness to,People, Dogs and Objects in Children with Autism

ABSTRACT

Autism strongly affects the ability to establish social interactions. However, there is some suggestion that people with autism establish close social relationships with nonverbal communicating and intentionally acting animals (such as dogs). In this study, 14 children with autism (3 females, 11 males; mean age = 11.4 years) were observed when given the choice to interact with a person, dog (certified therapy dog) or objects (e.g., toys). The children interacted most frequently and for longest with the dog, followed by the person and then the objects. We suggest that animals, specifically dogs, communicate their intentions in a way more readily understandable to people with autism. We also suggest that autism affects predominantly interpersonal interactions.     

Interaction Between Capuchins and Coatis: Nonagonistic Behaviors and Lack of Predation

We compare the nature of capuchin-coati interactions by Cebus apella in 2 populations under semifree-ranging and wild conditions. We report a similar pattern of interaction at both sites, in spite of their ecological differences. Most frequent capuchin behaviors toward coatis were agonistic, but we noted no predation. Contrarily, the monkeys also exhibited nonagonistic behaviors, such as play and grooming. As tufted capuchins predate other mammalian species, and as the subjects were aggressive towards competitor species, showing their belligerent temperament, we believe the lack of predation can be attributed to 2 different ecological contigencies – the absence of coati pups in a period of food shortage, and the cost of dealing with a dangerous adult coati where other rich resources were available–and also, perhaps, to different traditions in capuchin behavior towards coatis, established via intraspecific social learning.     

The self in social interactions: sensory attenuation of auditory action effects is stronger in interactions with others

The experience of oneself as an agent not only results from interactions with the inanimate environment, but often takes place in a social context. Interactions with other people have been suggested to play a key role in the construal of self-agency. Here, we investigated the influence of social interactions on sensory attenuation of action effects as a marker of pre-reflective self-agency. To this end, we compared the attenuation of the perceived loudness intensity of auditory action effects generated either by oneself or another person in either an individual, non-interactive or interactive action context. In line with previous research, the perceived loudness of self-generated sounds was attenuated compared to sounds generated by another person. Most importantly, this effect was strongly modulated by social interactions between self and other. Sensory attenuation of self- and other-generated sounds was increased in interactive as compared to the respective individual action contexts. This is the first experimental evidence suggesting that pre-reflective self-agency can extend to and is shaped by interactions between individuals.     

Social Provisions of the Human—Animal Relationship amongst 30 People Living with HIV in Australia

ABSTRACT

Research on the relationship between humans and animals has identified some links between companion animals and physiological, psychological, and social benefits for the human. Adopting Robert Weiss's (1974) Theory of Social Provisions as a framework, this qualitative study explores the role of the human-animal relationship amongst 30 people living with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) in Australia. Despite the transition of HIV from a terminal to chronic condition in many developed nations, there can still be personal and social challenges accompanying an HIV-diagnosis. Thematic analysis of the 30 interviews identified themes of Attachment, Opportunity for Nurturance, Reassurance of Worth, Reliable Alliance, Obtaining of Guidance/Emotional Support, and Social Integration. Extracts coded to these themes indicated that many participants believed their companion animal motivated them to remain socially and physically active; provided an outlet for love and attachment; remained non-judgmental irrespective of the human's physical or social status; and was capable of providing both day-to-day comfort through their reliable presence, and episode-specific supportive responses during periods of heightened stress. It was proposed that for people living with a chronic and/or stigmatized condition like HIV, these aspects of the human-animal relationship may play an important part in their overall wellbeing. In conclusion, this study contributes to a greater understanding of the lived experience of HIV and provides a conceptually sound mechanism for validating the love and support that some HIV-positive people perceive in their relationship with a companion animal. This knowledge draws attention to the need to normalize, validate, and support the human-animal relationship throughout the animal's life, and death.     

The evolution of theory of mind on welfare tradeoff ratios

People seem to attribute beliefs and desires to another person when interacting with them. Such a “theory of mind” capacity is essential for complex and uniquely human behavior such as language, but its evolutionary origin remains elusive. Using the formal tools of evolutionary game theory, we asked what environmental properties are necessary to select for a basic form of theory of mind—the ability to infer the prosociality, quantified by the welfare tradeoff ratio, of another person toward oneself. We found that none of the environments studied in classical or evolutionary game theory give an advantage to this form of theory of mind capacities; theory of mind is advantageous only in a new class of environments with stable opponents and variable payoff structures. In two behavioral experiments (n = 91) we verified that people can, and do use theory of mind in such an environment. These results suggest that some features of early humans’ social environment that were previously neglected in evolutionary game theory may be responsible for the evolution of people’s complex social capacities.     

Companion-Animals’ Effectiveness in Managing Chronic Pain in Adult Community Members

ABSTRACT

Therapy animals have been found to alleviate pain in healthcare settings, but companion-animal owners report greater discomfort and use more analgesics than people who do not own one or more companion animals. To investigate this anomaly, 173 adults completed an online survey that included questions about themselves and any companion animal they owned, the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales, the Numeric Pain Rating Scale, and a modified version of the Chronic Pain Coping Inventory-42. Participants were also invited to contact the researchers to expand on their responses in a semi-structured interview, to which seven owners responded. There was no significant difference between reported pain levels in owners versus non-owners. However, companion-animal owners who reported actively using human–animal interactions to manage their pain rated this as moderately helpful and reported lower pain levels than other owners. There were also no significant differences between owners’ and non-owners’ anxiety or stress levels. Companion-animal owners reported more depressive symptoms than non-owners, but owners with animals perceived as more friendly reported fewer depressive symptoms. Dog owners comprised most of the sample and, for these participants, there was a negative association between perceived dog friendliness and levels of depression and anxiety. Those with more disobedient dogs also experienced greater stress. Interviewees reported that their companion animals helped them cope with pain in many ways, including provision of social and emotional support and by providing a sense of purpose in life. These findings indicate that some, but not all, companion animals may be beneficial for participants with chronic pain. Since the benefits appear to be associated with the species and personality of the animal, and with whether the person actively uses human–animal interactions as a pain-coping mechanism, care should be taken before recommending companion-animal ownership to persons suffering from chronic pain.     

Self-Rehabilitation of a Captive American Crow at Binghamton Zoo

The behavioral transition from an entirely unflighted-to-flighted, female yearling American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) in captivity in a specially designed exhibit was documented at the Binghamton Zoo at Ross Park in Binghamton, NY. Upon arrival, the focal crow had no complete primary feathers or retrices and had been in captivity since fledging. She apparently had never flown successfully and was using her legs and an abnormal body orientation to cushion her landing on the ground. In a social and physical environment with 3 flying companion crows and staggered perches, she developed and appeared to “practice” routines that ultimately resulted in her recovering normal body posture and flight ability. The crow’s practice routine was recorded during daily observations using an ethogram of social and locomotor behaviors. Both enclosure design and the social environment may have provided an ideal setting for the self-motivation of practice and this recovery. Attention to the potential for such practice could facilitate rehabilitation in individuals for whom rehabilitation was not thought possible.     

Selective battering of the family pet

Abstract

We examined the attitudes, perceptions and behaviors of both pet-abusing and non-pet-abusing perpetrators of family violence. Using data collected from victims residing at domestic violence shelters, results indicated that relative to their non-pet-abusing counterparts, pet-abusing batterers tend to less often show affection toward their pets, more often communicate with their pets only through commands and threats, more often view companion animals as property, are more likely to scapegoat their pets, and are more likely to have unrealistic expectations about their pets, more frequently punish their pets, and are more sensitive to stressful life events—particularly those perceived to be caused by the pet. We also queried respondents about batterers' past history with pets, the frequency and type of abuse inflicted on animals, the number of batterers who hunt, the frequency with which children witnessed abuse of the family pet, the impact of animal guardianship on decisions to remain with or return to the batterer, and where companion animals ended up when victims fled the batterer.