There for You: Attending Pet Euthanasia and Whether this Relates to Complicated Grief and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

ABSTRACT

Recognizing the deep relationship between grief and the loss of a companion animal, veterinarians and mental health practitioners often find themselves consoling pet owners both prior to and in the aftermath of pet euthanasia. Yet how does euthanasia influence this bereavement process? To explore this we examined, using a survey, the correlations between pet euthanasia, Complicated Grief (CG), and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) amongst a diverse range of pet owners from the state of Hawaii. Participants (n = 236) completed a 37-item questionnaire, the Inventory of Complicated Grief Revised Short Form (ICG-R-SF), and the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Of the participants, 3.4% and 4.7% met the criteria for CG and PTSD, respectively. This paper explores and subdivides respondents into those who attended their companion animal’s euthanasia and those who did not. Our results indicate that physically attending a companion animal’s euthanasia is not correlated with CG or PTSD. As the experience of pet loss itself may be more indicative of psychological distress than whether or not the owner was present at the moment of euthanasia, veterinary staff need not dissuade pet owners from sharing their pet’s final moments.     

The Richness of the Child-Pet Relationship: A Consideration of Both Benefits and Costs of Pets to Children

Abstract

The present study was aimed at identifying meaningful and sensitive measures of the potential social-emotional benefits and costs that children report as associated with their involvement with companion animals. The sample consisted of 213 children in grades 3 through 7 who had pets and another 44 who did not. The high percentage of pet ownership found is not unusual. Two questionnaires measuring pet benefits and pet costs were administered. The benefits identified were mutuality, enduring affection, self-enhancing affection, and exclusivity of relationship. The costs identified were distress stemming from pet death or pet rejection, unfair grief, dissatisfaction with pet's needs, worry about pet safety, “getting into trouble,” and distress at not being allowed to care for pet needs.     

Book Reviews

Abstract

As pets provide many important benefits of a psychological, social, and physiological nature, loss of a companion animal can be a devastating event. The adjustment process, although similar to that experienced when a human dies, may be hindered by a lack of social support and opportunities for healthy confiding in others. In the current study, 49 adults completed questionnaires assessing grief experience, mood, physical symptoms, and new pet acquisition. Questionnaires were completed 2, 4, 8, and 26 weeks after the pet's death. Each time, subjects also wrote an essay in which they either confided details, thoughts, and feelings about the pet's death (confiding condition) or wrote essays on events unrelated to the pet (control condition). Results indicated that, with few exceptions, the grief experience associated with the death of a companion animal is similar to that associated with the loss of a significant human. Confiding had little effect upon the adjustment process, but individuals reporting deeper relationships with their pets had more difficulty adjusting to the loss. Those with more intimate relationships were also less likely to acquire a new pet within six months. Other pre-existing family pets and the cause of the pet's death had no effect upon adjustment. These findings indicate that pet loss can be a significant event for many individuals, especially if the relationship with the animal was strong. Suggestions for facilitating adjustment and ideas for further research are presented.     

An Experience Sampling Approach to Investigating Associations between Pet Presence and Indicators of Psychological Wellbeing and Mood in Older Australians

ABSTRACT

In this study we examined associations between pet ownership and presence and indicators of psychological wellbeing in older Australians, using an innovative, experience sampling methodology and a community-living sample of 68 adults, including 41 pet owners, all aged over 65 years. In response to randomized prompts the participants provided information about their location, social companions, activities, and mood state six times daily for seven consecutive days. They also completed a number of surveys measuring various aspects of wellbeing. There were no significant differences in our outcome measures between pet owners and those who did not own at least one pet, and few of our pet owners reported engaging in pet-focused human– animal activities, such as walking their dog or playing with their cat. However, frequency of pet presence during activities of daily living was associated with, and statistically predictive of, several measures of wellbeing and mood. From our results we tentatively conclude that more frequent presence of a pet, particularly a dog, may be associated with greater psychological wellbeing in this cohort. More importantly, we confirm that the intensive experience sampling methodology provides a novel means of examining human–pet interactions, enabling a closer analysis of moment-by-moment pet presence than has been possible using alternative approaches.     

Young Adults' Attachment to Pet Dogs: Findings from Open-Ended Methods

ABSTRACT

Turning to someone in times of emotional distress (safe haven) is one key feature of an attachment bond. Aspects of pet dogs as sources of safe haven were examined with open-ended methods for two samples of young adults who were college students (total n = 566, mean age = 19.24 years). Based on ranked nominations, relative to other features of pet dogs as attachment figures, safe haven was the least salient. Nonetheless, although participants were less likely to turn to pet dogs than to mothers, friends, and romantic partners in times of distress, they were more likely to turn to pets than to fathers and brothers and just as likely to turn to sisters. Differences between pet dogs and some humans as sources of safe haven were smallest for participants with high levels of involvement in the care of their dogs and participants who regarded their dogs as strongly meeting needs for relatedness. It is concluded that characteristics of both the dog and the owner predispose young adults to regard their dogs as a source of safe haven and serve as one basis for establishing attachment bonds with them.     

Carnivorous Cats,Vegetarian Dogs,and the Resolution of the Vegetarian's Dilemma

The present research sought to further clarify the vegetarian's dilemma, the conflict that pits feeding one's pet an animal-based diet that may be perceived as best promoting their well-being with concerns over animal welfare and environmental degradation threatened by such diets. It specifically examined whether non-meat eaters would distinguish between pet dogs and cats in the percentage of their diet derived from animal products, guilt experienced from such diets, and perceived appropriateness of non-vegetarian diets. Survey responses from 290 vegans and vegetarians indicated that participants fed their pet dogs a diet significantly more vegetarian than they fed their pet cats, and reported experiencing less guilt feeding their cats a diet derived highly from animals than in feeding their dogs such a diet. This lack of guilt largely arose from greater endorsement that vegetarian diets were more inappropriate for cats than dogs. For dogs, then, the vegetarian's dilemma was resolved primarily through feeding them diets reduced in meat/fish. For cats, the primary attempt at resolving the dilemma was not behavioral but perceptual in that vegetarian diets were deemed inappropriate. As discussed, this latter strategy was met with mixed success. Overall, the reaction of participants reflected prevailing medical wisdom that vegetarian diets are somewhat acceptable for dogs but problematic for cats.     

Attitudes to Animal use in Children

ABSTRACT

Six hundred and fifty children, aged between 11 and 15 years, from an urban and a rural area, completed a questionnaire in which they provided information regarding their attitudes towards 13 issues involving the use of animals. Information regarding the pets the children owned was also obtained. The child's sex (male, female), age (11–15 years), and residence area (urban, rural) were related to pet ownership, and, including pet ownership, to attitudes towards the use of animals. Over 90% of the sample owned a pet, with the dog being the most common. More pets were owned by children from rural than urban areas. With regards to the animal-use issues, all the children discriminated between animal uses that lead to death of or injury to the animal and those regarded as exploitation. Children disagreed more with uses leading to the animal's death or injury. Females expressed more disagreement than males, and children from urban areas expressed more disagreement than children from rural settings. The study revealed pet ownership to be high among school children. This was matched by a high concern over activities leading to the animal's death or injury, indicating that strong attitudes to animal use are formed early during development. Early education may be important in shaping these attitudes.     

Pet Loss: A Survey of the Attitudes and Feelings of Practicing Veterinarians

Abstract

All 150 teaching clinicians at the six British veterinary schools and an equivalent number of veterinarians in small-animal practice were sent a ten-page questionnaire to survey their attitudes to and experiences with companion-animal euthanasia. Of the 300 questionnaires, 167 were returned, with responses being divided approximately evenly between the two groups. Seventy-two percent of the responses were from men. Data were collected on background, length of time in practice, pet ownership, attitudes on animal consciousness, and reactions to the deaths of both client and their own animals. For example, 22% of the respondents said that the death of one of their own pets had led to long-term emotional effects.

Seventy-four percent said that they would euthanize a healthy animal if the owner requested it, while 91% said they would euthanize a severely injured animal that could be saved if the owner requested euthanasia. Ninety-six percent said that they had received no formal training in how to explain to a client that an animal is terminally ill, and 72% felt that such training would be useful. The relationship between depressing events and the mood of the practitioners is discussed.     

An Examination of Adult Women’s Sleep Quality and Sleep Routines in Relation to Pet Ownership and Bedsharing

ABSTRACT

People in many parts of the world commonly share their beds not only with human partners but also with dogs and cats. Self-report and actigraphy data have shown that sleeping with an adult human partner has both positive and negative impacts on human sleep, but there has been little exploration of the impacts that pets have on human sleep quality. We collected survey data online from 962 adult women living in the United States to investigate relationships between pet ownership and human sleep. Fifty-five percent of participants shared their bed with at least one dog and 31% with at least one cat. In addition, 57% of participants shared their bed with a human partner. Our findings did not show a strong relationship between pet ownership status or bedsharing conditions and sleep quality as assessed by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), although according to this measure, a high percentage of study participants did experience sleep quality deficits. It is possible that pet ownership contributed to the high global PSQI scores we observed, especially since all but 7% of participants resided with dogs and/or cats. Other measures included in this study indicate that dogs and cats, and where they sleep, may indeed affect sleep habits and perceptions of sleep quality. Dog owners had earlier bedtimes and wake times than individuals who had cats but no dogs. Compared with human bed partners, dogs who slept in the owner’s bed were perceived to disturb sleep less and were associated with stronger feelings of comfort and security. Conversely, cats who slept in their owner’s bed were reported to be equally as disruptive as human partners, and were associated with weaker feelings of comfort and security than both human and dog bed partners. Follow-up research is necessary to determine if pet owners’ perceptions of pets’ impacts on their sleep align with objective measures of sleep quality.     

Sex differences in the antecedents of animal use attitudes

Abstract

Sex differences in attitudes toward the use of animals have been reported in previous research. This study examines sex differences in the levels of, and the interrelations among, three potential antecedents of attitudes toward animal use: caring value orientation, pet care experience and attachment to pets. Path analysis showed that pet care experience, through attachment to pets, accounted for a significant portion of variance in animal use attitudes in both males and females. Caring value orientation was directly linked to animal use attitudes in females, but in males, caring value orientation affected attachment to pets, which in turn impacted on animal use attitudes. Results are discussed in terms of Gilligan's theory of socialization.     

The Use and Nonuse of Companion Animals by Volunteers in Nursing Homes: A Comparative Study

Abstract

This report compares motivation and satisfaction of volunteers who visited residents in nursing homes accompanied by a dog with volunteers who visited the same residents but without a dog. The sample consisted of 40 people, 21 of whom were accompanied by a pet. A questionnaire of 111 items were developed and administered to all participants. Both groups of volunteers had equivalent volunteer experience and their reasons for volunteering were almost identical. No significant differences between the two groups were identified, possibly because of the small size of the sample, but an increased level of staff-volunteer interaction was reported for the pet group.     

Childhood Experiences with Family Pets and Internalizing Symptoms in Early Adulthood

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether childhood experiences with family pets are associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety in early adulthood. Undergraduate students (n=318) responded to an online survey that included questions about bonding with childhood pets, exposure to family violence and human aggression directed toward family pets in childhood, and current symptoms of depression and anxiety. Two-way ANCOVAs were conducted with a measure of childhood emotional abuse included as a covariate, and significant interactions were observed between pet bonding and exposure to aggression toward pets (pet aggression). Among participants with medium-level bonds, those who were exposed to pet aggression had significantly higher depression and anxiety scores than those who were not exposed to pet aggression. Among participants who were not exposed to pet aggression, those with medium-level bonds had lower depression and anxiety scores than those with low-level bonds. Bearing in mind the limitations of the research design, the results are consistent with the assertion that bonding with pets may support mental health and that exposure to animal cruelty may lead to the development of internalizing symptoms. The results also support the contention that both bonding with pets and exposure to pet aggression should be considered when investigating the association between experiences with pets and mental health. Interventions for the protection of children may be indicated in cases of animal cruelty. Social workers who investigate child maltreatment may be advised to refer children who are exposed to animal cruelty for counseling. Clinicians should consider addressing issues that arise from exposure to pet aggression during the therapeutic process.     

Adopting shelter dogs: Owner experiences of the first month post-adoption

Abstract

A number of studies have examined factors associated with the relinquishment of pet dogs to animal welfare shelters. In Australia, however, there has been little investigation of new owners' experiences when they subsequently adopt one of these dogs. To address this, telephone interviews were conducted with 62 persons who had recently adopted a shelter dog in Melbourne, Australia. Data relating to adopter demographics, factors influencing the selection of a dog and problems experienced post-adoption were collected. Shelter dogs were primarily acquired to replace a deceased pet or as companions to humans or other dogs. Selection was influenced by the dog's size, general appearance and behavior, with adopters preferring dogs who behaved in a calm and friendly manner. Common problems reported during the initial post-adoptive period were hyperactivity/boisterousness, compatibility issues with an existing pet and pulling on the lead. Escaping was strongly associated with separation-related problems. Three-quarters of the sample walked their dogs daily for 30 minutes or more, with larger dogs exercised for longer. Most dogs were exercised off-lead for some period, particularly larger dogs. This study indicates that improving assessment and matching procedures, and providing in-house and post-adoptive training could increase rehoming success rates.     

Exotic Animal Companions and the Personality of Their Owners

ABSTRACT

The present study explored sex-specific differences in the Big Five factors of personality between different pet ownership groups, in order to understand individual differences in the choice of companion animals. A total of 250 pet owners completed a German version of the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). For the first analysis, participants were divided into four broad groups: those owning traditional pets (e.g., cats, dogs), those owning cold-blooded exotic pets, those owning warm-blooded exotic pets, and those not owning animals. For the second analysis, participants were subdivided into nine groups, based on species of animal owned: cats, dogs, birds, fish, reptiles, spider/insect, small mammals, owners of many different animals, and non-owners. In both analyses, separate analyses of variance were applied to the scores of the NEO-FFI scales. Interaction effects between sex and several ownership groups on the traits Openness to Experience and Agreeableness were found in both analyses. Female owners of traditional pets scored, for example, significantly lower on openness to experience than female owners of cold-blooded exotic pets as well as male owners of traditional pets. Furthermore, female owners of cold-blooded exotic pets scored significantly higher on openness to experience than their male counterparts. Regarding agreeableness, male owners of cold-blooded exotic pets scored significantly lower than their female counterparts as well as male owners of traditional pets. These and other results indicate that personality may affect choice of pets—but in different directions for the two sexes.     

Companion-Animals’ Effectiveness in Managing Chronic Pain in Adult Community Members

ABSTRACT

Therapy animals have been found to alleviate pain in healthcare settings, but companion-animal owners report greater discomfort and use more analgesics than people who do not own one or more companion animals. To investigate this anomaly, 173 adults completed an online survey that included questions about themselves and any companion animal they owned, the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scales, the Numeric Pain Rating Scale, and a modified version of the Chronic Pain Coping Inventory-42. Participants were also invited to contact the researchers to expand on their responses in a semi-structured interview, to which seven owners responded. There was no significant difference between reported pain levels in owners versus non-owners. However, companion-animal owners who reported actively using human–animal interactions to manage their pain rated this as moderately helpful and reported lower pain levels than other owners. There were also no significant differences between owners’ and non-owners’ anxiety or stress levels. Companion-animal owners reported more depressive symptoms than non-owners, but owners with animals perceived as more friendly reported fewer depressive symptoms. Dog owners comprised most of the sample and, for these participants, there was a negative association between perceived dog friendliness and levels of depression and anxiety. Those with more disobedient dogs also experienced greater stress. Interviewees reported that their companion animals helped them cope with pain in many ways, including provision of social and emotional support and by providing a sense of purpose in life. These findings indicate that some, but not all, companion animals may be beneficial for participants with chronic pain. Since the benefits appear to be associated with the species and personality of the animal, and with whether the person actively uses human–animal interactions as a pain-coping mechanism, care should be taken before recommending companion-animal ownership to persons suffering from chronic pain.     

Exploring the Grief Experience Among Callers to a Pet Loss Support Hotline

The present study explored the grief experience among callers to the Ontario Veterinary College Pet Loss Support Hotline (PLSH). Summary notes (n = 75) of the conversations between callers and PLSH volunteers were qualitatively analyzed using content analysis. Major content categories emerging from the analysis include personal pet narrative; perceived support sources; grief experiences; relationship with pet; memorialization; grief coping strategies; grief triggers; decision to euthanize; and veterinary interaction. Findings support that pet loss grief is a broad, complex construct, which can be complicated by a pet owner’s perceptions that they have minimal social support sources and negative veterinary interactions. Pet owners involved in the current study appeared comfortable sharing personal stories about their pet’s death when asked. In addition, memorialization appeared to be widely used by PLSH callers and may have helped them cope with their loss. Importantly, the interaction with veterinary staff was identified to potentially aggravate or alleviate a pet owner’s grief experience. Implications for mental health counselors and veterinary staff are that asking pet owners to tell their pet’s story and explore their support network may have value following the loss of a pet. Also, effectively communicating about memorialization and grief coping strategies may be beneficial when talking to owners experiencing grief. Finally, there continues to be a need for curricula and continuing professional training courses for veterinarians and mental health counselors to address topics such as the human–animal bond, grief, euthanasia, and memorialization practices.     

Continuing Bonds and Psychosocial Functioning in a Recently Bereaved Pet Loss Sample

Research has shown that pet loss can be a devastating and complex experience for some human survivors, yet this loss may not be fully recognized by friends, partners, or acquaintances as a significant bereavement. The objectives of the current study were to consider how continuing bonds (CB) expressions relate to psychosocial functioning and to identify perceived social constraints as well as areas of resilience associated with efforts to cope with recent pet loss. Through an anonymous online survey, participants (n = 4,336) who had lost a pet to death within the past year were recruited via bereavement support groups and associated websites across the US. Findings in this severely bereaved sample demonstrated the utilization of a wide range of CB (e.g., reflecting on fond memories, holding onto possessions), which were experienced as comforting or distressing to varying extents across the sample. In addition, social constraints were associated with more negative mental health and functional outcomes, while post traumatic growth was in some cases associated with lower mental health and functional complaints. Results are discussed in terms of similarities in patterns of bereavement in human and pet loss samples as well as the importance of considering likely idiosyncratic patterns of response to loss. For example, distress and comfort associated with different efforts to maintain a connection to a deceased pet may occur simultaneously. Given the cross-sectional nature of the current study, experimental and longitudinal research is recommended to determine whether increasing CB efforts experienced as comforting may be a potentially adaptive, growth-enhancing aspect of bereavement.     

Pet Ownership and Human–Animal Interaction in an Aging Population: Rewards and Challenges

ABSTRACT

Older adults in most developed countries can now expect to live nearly 80 years without significant disability. To maximize the quality of the years after retirement, societies, governments, and organizations are seeking strategies to help older adults maintain their mental and physical health, and retain their independence. Increasingly, the impact of pet ownership and other forms of human–animal interaction in healthy aging are discussed and investigated. In the Western world, more than 50% of households own one or more pets. The popularity of pets means they are well positioned to provide opportunities for companionship and nurturance. Since social networks tend to decrease as people age, pets may fill some gaps. While it is common to read about the benefits of pets and human–animal interactions, pet ownership in older age is also related to challenges and animal welfare concerns. This paper aims to briefly review the benefits and then explore risks and challenges related to pet ownership in older adulthood. In addition, we present strategies for maintaining beneficial pet ownership and human–animal interaction for older adults.     

The relationship between pet ownership,social support,and internalizing symptoms in students from the first to fourth year of college

Abstract

Internalizing symptoms are prevalent in students as they enter and complete college. Considering research suggesting mental health benefits of pet ownership, this study explores the relationship between pet ownership, social support (SS), and internalizing symptoms (IS) in a cohort of students across their 4-year college experience. With no differences at college entry, students growing up with pets had greater IS through the fourth year, and greater SS through the third year, than those without pets. Currently living with a pet, gender, SS and personality predicted IS in the fourth year. Females experiencing higher IS in their first year are more likely to live with pets in their fourth year, and fourth year females living with pets or greatly missing absent pets have higher IS than females without pets or missing pets less. Findings suggest a unique relationship between IS in female students and their pet relationships not seen in males.