The Attachment of People to Companion Animals

ABSTRACT

This article examines whether the human-companion animal relation, and in particular attachment, can be explained and understood with the help of attachment theory and the “internal working model.” The (perceived) social support and responsivity of the human-animal bond and how these relate to the attachment theory are also discussed.

The research, however, found only weak relationships between owning a companion animal and attachment. Other factors that could influence the attachment of owners toward their animals are discussed.     

Companion Animals in Obituaries: An Exploratory Study

ABSTRACT

The benefits of human–animal interaction have been discussed extensively in the literature. In this paper we take a slightly different strategy in documenting that some humans acknowledge the importance of pets by actually referring to them in human obituaries. We begin with a brief overview of the human obituary, followed by the potential for pets as fictive kin to be named as survivors in obituaries. A bi-national, exploratory, content analysis of companion animal (CA)-related content in published newspaper obituaries is reported. The two criteria for inclusion were that a pet or pet survivors be named in the obituary or that donations be made to a pet-related charity. Of the 11,818 obituaries in three newspapers over a three-month period, 260 (2.2%) met one or both of these criteria. Five themes emerged within obituaries containing CA data. First, the word “pet” was rarely used. CAs were typically listed as survivors along with human family members. Second, terms of endearment were consistently used to describe animal companions left behind. Third, some family members, who likely crafted these last statements about their loved ones, engaged in a personification of (and projections onto) the animals left behind. Fourth, there was variation in the roles played by each person with their animal companion. And fifth, donations were made to a wide variety of animal charities. The possibility of CAs as fictive kin is explored, in addition to a call for further study.     

Prevalence of Blastocystis in Shelter-Resident and Client-Owned Companion Animals in the US Pacific Northwest

Domestic dogs and cats are commonly infected with a variety of protozoan enteric parasites, including Blastocystis spp. In addition, there is growing interest in Blastocystis as a potential enteric pathogen, and the possible role of domestic and in-contact animals as reservoirs for human infection. Domestic animals in shelter environments are commonly recognized to be at higher risk for carriage of enteropathogens. The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of infection of shelter-resident and client-owned domestic dogs and cats with Blastocystis spp in the Pacific Northwest region of the USA. Fecal samples were collected from 103 shelter-resident dogs, 105 shelter-resident cats, 51 client-owned dogs and 52 client-owned cats. Blastocystis were detected and subtypes assigned using a nested PCR based on small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences. Shelter-resident animals were significantly more likely to test positive for Blastocystis (P<0.05 for dogs, P = 0.009 for cats). Sequence analysis indicated that shelter-resident animals were carrying a variety of Blastocystis subtypes. No relationship was seen between Blastocystis carriage and the presence of gastrointestinal disease signs in either dogs or cats. These data suggest that, as previously reported for other enteric pathogens, shelter-resident companion animals are a higher risk for carriage of Blastocystis spp. The lack of relationship between Blastocystis carriage and intestinal disease in shelter-resident animals suggests that this organism is unlikely to be a major enteric pathogen in these species.     

Childhood Neglect,Attachment to Companion Animals,and Stuffed Animals as Attachment Objects in Women and Men

ABSTRACT

Childhood neglect has severe, pervasive, negative outcomes that often continue into adulthood. As a potential source of support for both children and adults, companion animals (pets) can both give and receive affection and therefore may be sources of healthy attachment for people who were raised in negative situations. Toy stuffed animals, in contrast, can only receive affection but may still be useful as transitional objects, particularly for people who experienced interpersonal neglect in childhood and who are in the midst of a transition away from the family home and into college. The current study examined the relationships among childhood neglect, companion animal attachment, and attachment to toy stuffed animals. Undergraduate participants (n = 457) from a large regional university answered questionnaires online. The first hypothesis, that self-reported childhood neglect would be positively related to attachment to companion animals, was supported for women only. Neglected women were more attached to companion animals than were non-neglected women, with a medium effect size. For men, there was no significant effect. The second hypothesis was that childhood neglect would be positively related to attachment to stuffed animals; this hypothesis was not supported. The third hypothesis, that women would be more attached to both companion animals and stuffed animals than would men, was supported. Attachment to companion animals and attachment to stuffed animals were positively related. Results are discussed within a framework of attachment and transitional objects as potential aids to therapy in people who were neglected in childhood.     

Attitudes Toward Companion Animals Among Hispanic Residents of a Texas Border Community

The researchers surveyed 206 residents of a Hispanic community on the Texas-Mexico border about their behaviors and attitudes toward companion animals. Selected members of the community administered a telephone survey to a systematic random sample of 206 individuals. The majority of participants believed that free-roaming dogs were a problem in their community, and nearly 81% responded that these dogs sometimes prevented them from walking outdoors. About 24% of dog guardians sometimes let their nonhuman animals roam free in the streets. Most study participants believed it was a good idea to sterilize both male and female dogs and cats, but only 11% of respondents' dogs and 27% of cats were sterilized. About 62% of households chained dogs outdoors; persons with an elementary-level education were 7 times more likely to chain their dogs than those who had completed some high school. The Hispanic population of the United States is growing rapidly; to guide officials charged with protecting animal welfare and the public health, it will become increasingly important to understand Hispanics' attitudes and behaviors toward companion animals.     

Sterilization of Companion Animals: Exploring the Attitudes and Behaviors of Latino Students in South Texas

A sample of 131 Latino students attending a university in south Texas near the United States–Mexico border completed a self-administered questionnaire regarding their companion animals (pets). Compared with dog caregivers (owners) (n = 106), cat caregivers (n = 25) were significantly more likely to favor early spay/neuter of pets and to report that the primary benefit received from their own pet was relational (for example, companionship) rather than functional (for example, sense of safety). The rate of sterilization was significantly higher for cats (60%) than for dogs (26.4%). Sterilization rates were significantly higher for cats whose owners favored early spay/neuter and had accurate knowledge about sterilization of female cats and dogs. Sterilization rates were significantly higher for dogs whose owners had a veterinarian, favored early spay/neuter, and valued relational benefits of guardianship more than functional benefits. Approximately 41% of owners whose pets were not sterilized reported that they wanted puppies or kittens, and 25% reported that the cost of the procedure was the primary barrier. Sterilization programs must include both education about the benefits of sterilization and low-cost spay/neuter services.     

The Influence of Companion Animals on Owner Perception: Gender and Species Effects

ABSTRACT

There is some evidence that the presence of a companion animal influences perceptions of the psychological attributes of its owner. The present study investigated how these effects vary by pet species and owner gender. A sample of 542 students rated slides of a man or woman accompanied by a cat, a dog or alone using 36 adjectives. These adjectives were subsequently grouped into four clusters labelled ‘Nice’, ‘Nasty’, ‘Style’ and ‘Action’. Statistical analyses revealed that the female target person was rated as significantly nicer, more stylish and more active with the dog than with the cat. The male target person was rated as nicer, more stylish and more active with the cat than the dog. This pattern was contrary to that hypothesized, which was based on traditional gender and human-pet stereotypes. Discussion focuses on the changing nature of gender stereotypes and the resulting complexity of owner-pet perceptions.     

Slides of Group Members as Representations of the Real Animals (Macaca fascicularis)

Three long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) apparently recognized the identity of group members presented by means of colour slides. After training on a minimum of examples, the subjects correctly identified in unique transfer trials novel views of the stimulus animals used in training. In first trials, one subject matched different face views, and face views with other body parts, of the same animal significantly more often than by chance when the animals were group members. Slides of group members can therefore be used as representations of monkeys individually known to the subjects.     

Welfare Impacts of Spay/Neuter-Focused Outreach on Companion Animals in New York City Public Housing

Spay/neuter (S/N) programs aim to reduce shelter intake and euthanasia. However, there is little published evidence of a causal effect between S/N programs and shelter intake or euthanasia. To uncover any ancillary effects of S/N, this study examined the impact of S/N door-to-door outreach on welfare-related outcomes and attitudes around S/N in underserved areas of New York City. There was no significant difference between a group receiving intensive outreach and a comparison group on whether they had rehomed a companion animal in the last year. There was a significantly higher level of saturation of S/N in the intensive-outreach area. A significantly higher percentage of those in the intensive-outreach group reported knowing at least 1 way to get help for their companion animals and that the caregiver-defined general well being of nonhuman animals in their neighborhood was better during the previous year. These data suggest that intensive S/N outreach has an impact on the level of saturation of S/N, the perceived efficacy of caregivers to find help if needed, and the perception that animal welfare is being improved.     

The Use and Nonuse of Companion Animals by Volunteers in Nursing Homes: A Comparative Study

Abstract

This report compares motivation and satisfaction of volunteers who visited residents in nursing homes accompanied by a dog with volunteers who visited the same residents but without a dog. The sample consisted of 40 people, 21 of whom were accompanied by a pet. A questionnaire of 111 items were developed and administered to all participants. Both groups of volunteers had equivalent volunteer experience and their reasons for volunteering were almost identical. No significant differences between the two groups were identified, possibly because of the small size of the sample, but an increased level of staff-volunteer interaction was reported for the pet group.     

Reasons for Relinquishment of Companion Animals in U.S. Animal Shelters: Selected Health and Personal Issues

In personal interviews, people surrendering their dogs and cats to 12animal shelters in 4 regions of the country discussed their reasons for relinquishing their companion animals and answered questions about their own characteristics and those of their pet. The interviews identified 71 reasons for relinquishment. Personal issues lead the class of reasons for relinquishment of cats and ranked 3rd among those given for relinquishment of dogs. The top 3 health and personal issues cited for giving up cats were allergies of a family member to cats, owner's personal problems, and anew baby. For dogs, the top 3 reasons cited were lack of time for the dog, owner's personal problems, and allergies. Analysis of these health and personal issues suggests that education and counseling before and after acquisition of a pet, as well as the availability of temporary accommodations for pets during times of personal crisis, may reduce relinquishments.     

Effects of Number of Animals Monitored on Representations of Cattle Group Movement Characteristics and Spatial Occupancy

The number of animals required to represent the collective characteristics of a group remains a concern in animal movement monitoring with GPS. Monitoring a subset of animals from a group instead of all animals can reduce costs and labor; however, incomplete data may cause information losses and inaccuracy in subsequent data analyses. In cattle studies, little work has been conducted to determine the number of cattle within a group needed to be instrumented considering subsequent analyses. Two different groups of cattle (a mixed group of 24 beef cows and heifers, and another group of 8 beef cows) were monitored with GPS collars at 4 min intervals on intensively managed pastures and corn residue fields in 2011. The effects of subset group size on cattle movement characterization and spatial occupancy analysis were evaluated by comparing the results between subset groups and the entire group for a variety of summarization parameters. As expected, more animals yield better results for all parameters. Results show the average group travel speed and daily travel distances are overestimated as subset group size decreases, while the average group radius is underestimated. Accuracy of group centroid locations and group radii are improved linearly as subset group size increases. A kernel density estimation was performed to quantify the spatial occupancy by cattle via GPS location data. Results show animals among the group had high similarity of spatial occupancy. Decisions regarding choosing an appropriate subset group size for monitoring depend on the specific use of data for subsequent analysis: a small subset group may be adequate for identifying areas visited by cattle; larger subset group size (e.g. subset group containing more than 75% of animals) is recommended to achieve better accuracy of group movement characteristics and spatial occupancy for the use of correlating cattle locations with other environmental factors.     

Quality of Attachment to Companion Animals among U.S. Adults 21 to 64 Years of Age

Abstract

Previous reports of scales and indices used in studying attachment to companion animals have not included representative samples of the United States population or have failed to show good psychometric properties. This report includes psychometric analyses of a companionanimal attachment scale used among a national probability sample of United States adults aged 21 to 64 years. Internal structures of the scale were shown to be good with all eight items loading strongly on one factor. Cronbach's alpha was 0.75 with all eight items included. As expected, those individuals who had sole responsibility for the care of the companion animal had stronger attachment scores, as did individuals who had never been married. Type of pet was not significantly associated with attachment scores, which indicates that this scale may be useful for all companion animals, not solely for dogs and cats. However, further work including a larger sample of bird and fish owners needs to be done before the value of this attachment scale in that population of owners is clearly established.     

Disposition of Shelter Companion Animals From Nonhuman Animal Control Officers,Citizen Finders,and Relinquished by Caregivers

Many private not-for-profit humane societies have contracts with their local government entities to provide nonhuman animal control services that the law commonly requires the government to provide to its residents. These services normally have the humane organization providing either the total animal control program (including field work to pick up stray animal companions, enforcing local animal ordinances, and the impounding of stray companion animals) or just the boarding of companion animals with no fieldwork or enforcement duties. Shelter companion animals normally come from three main sources: (a) stray or lost companion animals impounded by animal control field officers or animals impounded for violations of humane care regulations; (b) stray companion animals brought to the shelter by a resident who happens across, and catches, a lost companion animal and delivers the animal to the shelter; and (c) companion animals relinquished by their caregivers.