The Attachment of People to Companion Animals

ABSTRACT

This article examines whether the human-companion animal relation, and in particular attachment, can be explained and understood with the help of attachment theory and the “internal working model.” The (perceived) social support and responsivity of the human-animal bond and how these relate to the attachment theory are also discussed.

The research, however, found only weak relationships between owning a companion animal and attachment. Other factors that could influence the attachment of owners toward their animals are discussed.     

The Pet Relationship Scale: Replication of Psychometric Properties in Random Samples and Association With Attitudes Toward Wild Animals

Abstract

Recent interest in the human-companion animal bond (HCAB) has been reflected in increased efforts to develop self-report attitudinal scales about affectionate relationships with pet Animals. A recent review and critique of pet attitude assessments indicated that most scale development efforts used small nonrandom samples, did not report psychometric characteristics, and paid inadequate attention to concurrent validation of the resulting measures. This article reports on the continued refinement and validation of the Pet Relationship Scales (PRS) in a large random sample independent from the two samples used to develop the scales. The random sample showed distinct differences in responses as compared with the two previously used samples, highlighting the need to test animal attitudes in samples drawn from the general population, and to examine them in greater detail in relation to other personal and situational factors that might mediate the influence of attitudes on behavior directed toward animals.     

Responsiveness and perceived intelligence as predictors of speech addressed to cats

Abstract

Speech addressed to a cat was examined to test whether the use of child-directed language (CDL) with a companion animal is related to perceived intelligence of a listener and/or listener responsiveness. Fifty-one undergraduates briefly entertained a cat using a toy, and the vast majority of these participants spoke to the animal. The language used was similar to CDL, and two aspects of this language (number of questions and attribution of thoughts to the animal) were positively related to ratings of the animal's intelligence. The cat's responsiveness, as measured by time spent in proximity of the participant during the interaction, was not strongly correlated with measures of speech use. The results suggest that speech used with companion animals follows a model in which the human first perceives a social interaction, and therefore uses speech. This speech is then modified, based on the perceived comprehension of the listener, regardless of who this listener may be.     

Designing an assistive robot for older adults: The ROBADOM project

ObjectiveThe ROBADOM project was devoted to the design of a “robot butler”, capable of providing verbal and non-verbal interactions and feedbacks for assisting older adults at home. In this article we focused on the following issues: (1) study the social context for designing social robot; define the robot appearance and investigate the perceptions and attitudes of older adults towards an assistive robot; (2) examine the perception of the expressivity of the robot, the social signals showing the end-user engagement level and the role of agent embodiment during the interaction between older adults and a robot.MethodThe design of the studies involved both qualitative and experimental methods.Results & DiscussionSmall robots with some traits between human/animal and machine were appreciated by the participants. As regards services, cognitive stimulation, reminder and object localization were positively rated. Although the participants considered an assistive robot as useful, they were not yet ready to adopt it. The expressions of the robot were perceived differently in older and young adults. Thus, a robotic system dedicated to older adults should be tailored to the specific characteristics of this population. We also identified social signals as indicators of the user's engagement level during interaction. Finally, the issue of the added valued of a robotic system in comparison to a laptop was raised by our participants. Therefore, various issues (technological development, human-robot interaction, social context…) are to be explored before testing the impact of the robot at home.     

Morningness–eveningness and amplitude – development and validation of an improved composite scale to measure circadian preference and stability (MESSi)

Measuring morningness–eveningness is an important aspect of individual differences because it is associated with many aspects of personality and health. The present study outlines recent advancements in the field of measurement and proposes an improved assessment of morningness–eveningness, such as the measurement of circadian amplitude, updating and reflecting new item developments, addressing the clock time based measures, the morning-biased items and the aspect of uni versus multidimensionality. Four studies have been carried out in Germany to present a novel development (with a total sample of N = 1181). In study I, the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed three dimensions, one of morningness, one of eveningness and one of amplitude/stability. Then, items were reduced to present a clearer factor structure by removing ambiguous items. In the second study, a shortened questionnaire was applied, with 15 items (5 per construct), but Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) did not provide acceptable fit indices. Refining items were made in study III, which again showed a clearer factor structure in EFA, and subsequently, in study IV, the refined set of 15 items provided a good fit of a CFA. The final questionnaire was tested for validity by applying clock times, personality questions and alertness ratings. Thus, this newly developed questionnaire contains three distinct dimensions. To reflect the new content, the scale is labelled morningness–eveningness-stability-scale improved (MESSi).     

Grooming interactions over infants in four species of primate

Interaction analysis is a commonly used tool in the study of human relationships by psychologists, but can be extended to an anthropological focus on comparative culture patterns. This paper utilizes video of primates and humans interacting over infants to assess the nature of the interaction and its probable success in attaining the interactants' goals. The four categories of reactive, mutual, asymmetric, and conflict asymmetric interactions are analyzed and compared between two species of macaques, orangutans, and humans, in an effort to show the complexity of relationships and goals that can ensue from a common type of interaction, and the similarities of pattern across a wide range of levels of social complexity.     

The Anthropomorphic Application of Gender Stereotypes to Horses

ABSTRACT

Gender stereotypes shape human social interaction, often to the detriment of women and those who do not comply with normative expectations of gender. So far, little research has assessed the extent to which people apply gender stereotypes to animals, and the implications this may have for in-dividuals and groups, particularly female animals. The current study investigated survey respondents’ preference for horses to perform in different sport and leisure practices, based solely on ideas about the sex of the animal. An anonymous online survey explored the preferences of riders for mares, geldings, and stallions for dressage, show-jumping, and trail-riding, and reasons for their choice. A total of 1,032 responses were received. Geldings were the preferred choice, being perceived as safe and reliable, followed by stallions who were valued for their supposed power, presence, and good looks. Overall, mares were the least popular choice, and were discussed in ambivalent terms reflecting broad gender stereotypes which depict females as moody, flighty, and unpredictable. Respondents appeared to draw on gender stereotypes to make judgements about horses and justify their choices. The anthropomorphic application of gender stereotypes to animals may have negative consequences for female animals, shaping human–animal interactions and expectations.     

Introducing weights to life cycle sustainability assessment—how do decision-makers weight sustainability dimensions?

Purpose

Decisions based on life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) pose a multi-criteria decision issue, as impacts on the three different sustainability dimensions have to be considered which themselves are often measured through several indicators. To support decision-making at companies, a method to interpret multi-criteria assessment and emerging trade-offs would be beneficial. This research aims at enabling decision-making within LCSA by introducing weights to the sustainability dimensions.

Methods

To derive weights, 54 decision-makers of different functions at a German automotive company were asked via limit conjoint analysis how they ranked the economic, environmental, and social performance of a vehicle component. Results were evaluated for the entire sample and by functional clusters. Additionally, sustainability respondents, i.e., respondents that dealt with sustainability in their daily business, were contrasted with non-sustainability respondents. As a last step, the impact of outliers was determined. From this analysis, practical implications for ensuring company-optimal decision-making in regard to product sustainability were derived.

Results and discussion

The results showed a large spread in weighting without clear clustering. On average, all sustainability dimensions were considered almost equally important: the economic dimension tallied at 33.5%, the environmental at 35.2%, and the social at 31.2%. Results were robust as adjusting for outliers changed weights on average by less than 10%. Results by function showed low consistency within clusters hinting that weighting was more of a personal than a functional issue. Sustainability respondents weighted the social before the environmental and economic dimension while non-sustainability respondents put the economic before the other two dimensions. Provided that the results of this research could be generalized, the retrieved weighting set was seen as a good way to introduce weights into an operationalized LCSA framework as it represented the quantification of the already existing decision process. Therefore, the acceptance of this weighting set within the respective company was expected to be increased.

Conclusions

It could be shown that conjoint analysis enabled decision-making within LCSA by introducing weights to solve a multi-criteria decision issue. Furthermore, implications for practitioners could be derived to ensure company-optimal decision-making related to product sustainability. Future research should look at expanding the sample size and geographical scope as well as investigating the weighting of indicators within sustainability dimensions and the drivers that influence personal decision-making in regard to weighting sustainability dimensions.

     

Applied Ethics in Animal Research: Philosophy,Regulations, and Laboratory Applications Edited by John P. Gluck,Tony DiPasquale,and F. Barbara Orlans

ABSTRACT

The goal of this study was to test if dolphin-assisted therapy could be an effective therapeutic intervention for children with significant social and communication disabilities. Furthermore, it was crucial to determine the relative importance of the dolphin and the parent consultation factors implicit in the therapy. The method employed was a before-and-after comparison of three control groups and one experimental group. In the experimental group, all three aspects of the therapeutic intervention—interaction with dolphins, parent counseling and a curative, relaxed environment—were included. Control group 1 (outpatient therapy group) was limited to just interaction with dolphins. In control group 2 (farm animal group), the parents were counseled after the children interacted with farm animals (which replaced dolphins). Control group 3 received no treatment. The post-treatment parent questionnaire results revealed therapeutic success in the areas of both productive and receptive language, processing of non-verbal cues, social skills, and self-confidence. Observations of parent–child interaction indicated that after treatment in the experimental group, interactions of children could be interpreted more accurately, on a long-term basis. The discovered therapeutic effects occurred regardless of whether the children were in the water during therapy or not.     

Animal rights activists' representations of animals and animal rights: An exploratory study

Abstract

During the last 30 years, supporters of the animal rights movement have questioned the use of animals for human benefit and have campaigned for improvements in their welfare. In the present study, activists' representations of animals and animal rights were investigated by interviewing 23 participants (from three animal welfare and animal rights organizations) during four focus-group discussions. Results show that the activists' representations were generated from the love/pain thema, which on the one hand showed the compassion and love the activists have for animals, and on the other hand the suffering that animals can endure. Moreover, differences were found in this study in the way that members of the three animal welfare and rights organizations constructed their views of animals. While members of two out of the three organizations aimed to protect abandoned animals, members of the Anti-Vivisection League faced the contradictions within the human–animal relationship and endorsed a more coherent approach to animals. These findings are interpreted in light of previous studies conducted on the animal rights movement and of recent developments in social representation theory.     

Is female investment in defence correlated with breeding success in Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus

CapsuleThe intensity of parental defence, irrespective of the value of offspring, may be one of the proximate causes of breeding success, reflecting the quality of breeders.

Aims To test whether female Hen Harrier investment in defence towards a human predator influences breeding success.

Methods Generalized linear mixed models were used, with nest content, date of visit, the interaction (nest content*date), breeding success (number of fledglings/clutch size) and presence or absence of male as explanatory variables. ‘Female’ was included as a random variable in the model. Alarm call rate by a female Hen Harrier during the first three minutes after my arrival at a nest was used as a dependent variable (as an indicator of parental investment in defence towards a human predator).

Results Females were present and alarmed in 100% of visits whereas males were present in 37% of visits. The individual variations in female investment in defence, after controlling for the principal determinants of nest defence, were significantly correlated with breeding success of each pair.

Conclusion The relationship between female investment in nest defence and reproductive success can be explained through differences in female quality. Good quality females, as measured by the level of investment in nest defence, probably also invested more in other breeding aspects not controlled in this study obtaining higher reproductive success.     

Population size,social behaviour,and dispersal in house mice: A quantitative investigation

An experimental study was conduced to examine some relationships between population size, social behaviour, and dispersal utilizing wild genotype Mus musculus in seminatural enclosures. Groups of male and female mice were used to simulate natural populations. The results indicate that male territoriality occurred significantly more often in populations of greater size but equal density, and these groups demonstrated a significantly greater rate of agonistic interactions per animal when compared to smaller populations. No significant differences were observed for other categories of social interaction. The percentage of animals emigrating and the population density following emigration were the same in small and large groups.     

The Relationship between Types of Human–Animal Interaction and Attitudes about Animals: An Exploratory Study

Existing theory and research suggests that understanding the nuances of particular instantiations of human–animal relationships is important in promoting positive, mutually beneficial relationships between people and animals. One such aspect of human–animal interaction (HAI) involves species of animal involved in the relationship, and how various types of HAI may impact individuals' attitudes about animals. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore if species and/or types of animal ownership were associated with feelings of emotional attachment, commitment, and moral orientation toward animals. A sample of young adults (n = 567) from the 4-H Study of Positive Youth Development completed a survey which included questions about animal ownership and attitudes about animals. Regression analyses demonstrated that the species of animal(s) a person owned significantly predicted all three dimensions of attitudes about animals. In addition, latent class analyses identified three prevalent types of animal interaction (no/few animals, small animals only, large and small animals), and multinomial logistic regression within the mixture model indicated that individuals in these subgroups significantly differed in moral orientation scores. Overall, the analyses strengthen support for the notion that species of animal involved in the interaction matters, and that relationships with various species of animals may differ qualitatively. These findings have implications for understanding the role of the relationship between types of animal ownership and attitudes about animals. Exploring the multifaceted nature of human–animal relationships is important in understanding how to optimize the person and animal characteristics that are associated with adaptive, mutually beneficial human–animal relationships.     

Life cycle sustainability analysis applied to an innovative configuration of concentrated solar power

Purpose

Life cycle sustainability analysis (LCSA) is being developed as a holistic tool to evaluate environmental, economic and social impacts of products or services throughout their life cycle. This study responds to the need expressed by the scientific community to develop and test LCSA methodology, by assessing the sustainability of a concentrated solar power (CSP) plant based on HYSOL technology (an innovative configuration delivering improved efficiency and power dispatchability).

Methods

The methodology proposed consists of three stages: goal and scope definition, modelling and application of tools, and interpretation of results. The goal of the case study was to investigate to what extent may the HYSOL technology improve the sustainability of power generation in the Spanish electricity sector. To this purpose, several sustainability sub-questions were framed and different analysis tools were applied as follows: attributional and consequential life cycle assessment, life cycle cost (LCC) analysis and multiregional input-output analysis (MRIO), and social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) in combination with social risk assessment (with the Social Hotspots Database). Visual diagrams representing the sustainability of the analysed scenarios were also produced to facilitate the interpretation of results and decision making.

Results and discussion

The results obtained in the three sustainability dimensions were integrated using a “questions and answers” layout, each answer describing a specific element of sustainability. The HYSOL technology was investigated considering two different operation modes: HYSOL BIO with biomethane as hybridization fuel and HYSOL NG with natural gas. The results indicated that the deployment of HYSOL technology would produce a reduction in the climate change impact of the electricity sector for both operation modes. The LCC analysis indicated economic benefits per MWh for a HYSOL NG power plant, but losses for a HYSOL BIO power plant. The MRIO analysis indicated an increase in goods and services generation, and value added for the HYSOL technology affecting primarily Spain and to a lower extent other foreign economies. The social analysis indicated that both alternatives would provide a slight increase of social welfare Spain.

Conclusions

The methodological approach described in this investigation provided flexibility in the selection of objectives and analysis tools, which helped to quantify the sustainability effect of the system at a micro and meso level in the three sustainability dimensions. The results indicated that the innovation of HYSOL power plants is well aimed to improve the sustainability of CSP technology and the Spanish electricity sector.

     

Information following a Diagnosis of Congenital Heart Defect: Experiences among Parents to Prenatally Diagnosed Children

BackgroundPrenatal screening of pregnant women in Sweden has improved the detection of major congenital heart defects (CHD). The aim was to explore parental experiences and need for information following a prenatal diagnosis of CHD.MethodsSemi-structured interviews conducted with six fathers and five mothers to seven prenatally diagnosed children. Data were analyzed through content analysis.ResultsThree themes and 9 categories emerged. Theme 1, Grasping the facts today while reflecting on the future, containing five categories: Difficulties sorting out information when in emotional chaos; Respectful information regarding termination of pregnancy; Early information is crucial; Understanding the facts regarding the anomaly; Preparing for the future. Theme 2, Personal contact with medical specialists who give honest and trustworthy information is valued, containing two categories: Trust in information received from medical specialists and Truth and honesty is valued. Theme 3, An overwhelming amount of information on the Internet, containing two categories: Difficulties in finding relevant information and Easy to focus on cases with a poor outcome when searching the Internet.ConclusionEarly and honest information in line with individual preferences is crucial to support the decisional process regarding whether to continue or terminate the pregnancy. The use of illustrations is recommended, as a complement to oral information, as it increases comprehension and satisfaction with obtained information. Furthermore, the overwhelming amount of information on the Internet calls for compilation of easily accessible and reliable information sources via the Internet.     

Children with Avoidant or Disorganized Attachment Relate Differently to a Dog and to Humans During a Socially Stressful Situation

ABSTRACT

Human attachment representations are shaped in interaction with the primary caregiver and are generally transferred to further bonding/ social partners later in life. According to previous evidence, primary attachment representations acquired with humans do not seem to be transferred to companion animals. This was held as a major factor why such animals would effectively provide social support also to persons with insecure attachment. The aim of this study in 19 male children, 7–11 years of age and with insecure-avoidant or disorganized attachment, was to investigate differences in their social behavior and in physiological responses when socially supported by an unfamiliar therapy dog in a socially stressful situation. The Trier Social Stress Test for Children (TSST-C) was conducted to elicit stress in the children when in the presence of the dog and a female human investigator. We found that boys with disorganized attachment (n=11) communicated more intensely than avoidantly attached boys (n=8) with both the dog and humans present. Boys with a disorganized attachment had more physical contact with the dog during the TSST-C and talked more to the dog during and after the TSST-C than did boys with an insecure-avoidant attachment. While the prevailing wisdom holds that attachment representations acquired with the primary human caregiver would not transfer to companion animals, our data indicate otherwise. At least components of attachment-related interaction styles, such as degree of contact seeking in verbal and tactile interactions are also displayed in interaction with animal partners.     

A social panorama within the life cycle thinking and the circular economy: a literature review

Purpose

This literature review aims to present the current methodologies that have been developed to perform a social life cycle assessment (sLCA) and to display the main differences among them. In addition to that, to identify the nexus between sLCA and circular economy (CE) and to what extent this life cycle technique has been involved within CE studies.

Methods

An analysis of scientific literature using online databases was made. A total of 76 publications, including all industry sectors worldwide, were chosen spanning 11 years, from 2009 to 2020. Special attention was made to the methodology used to assess the social impacts, the impact categories analyzed, and whether there is or not a circular economy case. All the impact categories of both UNEP/SETAC and PSIA were taken into account when doing the review, and the top three of the categories are mentioned here.

Results and discussion

The leadership of the UNEP/SETAC methodology is clear with 58 cases. Almost 90% of the case studies are focused on products while the remaining ones are related with services. Workers are the most considered stakeholder when conducting an sLCA research, followed by local communities and society. Regarding the impact assessment, the performance reference point (PRP) was the most common method used. When considering the CE even when some cases included the end-of-life stage in the system boundaries, the studies did not consider the actors from that stage; excluding these cases, one out of four articles has a link with CE, a promising proportion taking into account the early stage of both concepts (i.e., sLCA and CE).

Conclusions

UNEP/SETAC guidelines seem to be the most promising methodology due to its reception among the scientific community. However, a more industry-oriented approach is proposed by the Roundtable for Product Social Metrics (PSIA) in a way to respond to manufacturing companies’ demand. Regardless of the type of methodology to be implemented, workers represent the key stakeholder when assessing social impacts. The change in usual patterns is leading to a change in the way how stakeholders interact and therefore new and more impacts may arise, and that is the reason why it is important to include the CE into the sLCA. A series of challenges such as the feasibility of aggregating all the life cycle techniques to one (life cycle sustainability assessment), data availability, and quality are still present for the moment.

     

Companion Animals and other Factors Affecting Young Children's Development

ABSTRACT

This study focuses on three factors presumed to affect young children's development: their age, the quality of their home environments, and the child-pet relationship. Three sets of analyses are presented: effects associated with pet ownership (pet presence), effects associated with the strength of the child-pet relationship, and the combined effects of age, home environment, and the child-companion animal relationship. This study includes both a parent survey (n = 88) and in-home assessments (n = 44) of the three- to six-year-old children. The analyses support the hypothesis that normal preschool children's intellectual, motor, and social development is associated with the presence of a companion animal and increases with their age, the quality of their home environment, and their relationship with a companion animal. While the children's age and the quality of their home environments were associated with measures of the children's cognitive, motor, and social development, the companion animal effect was limited to the young children's social development including their empathy for other children.     

Effects of Having Pets at Home on Children's Attitudes toward Popular and Unpopular Animals

ABSTRACT

Having pets at home provides various social, health, and educational benefits to children. The question of how keeping pets at home affects the attitudes of children toward wild animals still has not been answered, due to various methodological issues, such as ignorance of some attitude dimensions and/or questionnaires that include items focused on very different animals. We conducted three independent research surveys (using three independent samples) of Slovakian primary school children aged 10 to 15 years (n = 1297). These surveys focused on the effects of keeping pets on the attitudes of children towards, and knowledge of, three unpopular animals in Slovakia. These animals were pests (potato beetle) (Study 1), predators (wolf) (Study 2), and those that pose a threat of disease to humans (mouse) (Study 3). Each survey also included a popular animal (ladybird beetle, rabbit, and squirrel, respectively), which served as a “control”; these were compared by pair-wise statistics. Results consistently showed that children had better knowledge of, but less favorable attitudes towards, unpopular animals compared with popular ones. Having pets at home was associated with more positive attitudes to, and better knowledge of, both popular and unpopular animals. Girls were less favorably inclined than boys to animals that may pose a threat, danger, or disease to them. Implications for humane education are discussed, especially in terms of keeping pets, the link between knowledge and attitudes, and children's understanding of ecological adaptations.