Pet Ownership,Type of Pet and Socio-Emotional Development of School Children

ABSTRACT

The current study was designed to compare the socio-emotional characteristics of school children pet owners and children without pets and to examine whether the type of pet is a variable which can differentiate the socio-emotional development of their owners. The subjects, 425 girls and 401 boys, were students of fourth (n=265), sixth (n=295) and eighth (n=266) grade of elementary schools from the metropolitan area of Zagreb, Croatia. Socio-emotional variables assessed in the study were: child attachment to pet, child prosocial orientation, empathy, loneliness, perception of family climate and social anxiety. The data showed that 54.4% of children in the sample were pet owners (26.2% of children in the study had a dog, 9.2% had a cat, and 19.0% had some other pet). In order to answer the main research question, several analyses of variance (gender by grade by pet ownership) were computed for each criterion of socio-emotional development. Significant main effects were obtained for empathy, prosocial orientation and pet attachment, with dog owners being more empathic and prosocially oriented than non-owners, and dog owners and cat owners being more attached to their pets than owners of other kinds of pets. Additional analyses of variance were computed in order to examine the role of attachment in the socio-emotional functioning of the children. Subjects were divided in three sub-groups: non-owners, lower then average attached owners, and higher than average attached owners. Children who scored higher than average on the attachment to pets scale showed significantly higher scores on the empathy and prosocial orientation scales than non-owners and children who scored lower than average on the attachment to pets scale. It was also found that children with higher levels of attachment to pets rated their family climate significantly better than children who had lower attachment to pets.     

An Experience Sampling Approach to Investigating Associations between Pet Presence and Indicators of Psychological Wellbeing and Mood in Older Australians

ABSTRACT

In this study we examined associations between pet ownership and presence and indicators of psychological wellbeing in older Australians, using an innovative, experience sampling methodology and a community-living sample of 68 adults, including 41 pet owners, all aged over 65 years. In response to randomized prompts the participants provided information about their location, social companions, activities, and mood state six times daily for seven consecutive days. They also completed a number of surveys measuring various aspects of wellbeing. There were no significant differences in our outcome measures between pet owners and those who did not own at least one pet, and few of our pet owners reported engaging in pet-focused human– animal activities, such as walking their dog or playing with their cat. However, frequency of pet presence during activities of daily living was associated with, and statistically predictive of, several measures of wellbeing and mood. From our results we tentatively conclude that more frequent presence of a pet, particularly a dog, may be associated with greater psychological wellbeing in this cohort. More importantly, we confirm that the intensive experience sampling methodology provides a novel means of examining human–pet interactions, enabling a closer analysis of moment-by-moment pet presence than has been possible using alternative approaches.     

What's in it for the companion animal? Pet attachment and college students' behaviors toward pets

Research on the human-nonhuman animal bond has focused primarily on its advantages to the human. The purpose of this study is to investigate behaviors of caregivers (owners) of companion animals (pets) and to examine the relationship between such behaviors and scores on a pet attachment scale. Participants were 501 largely nontraditional (older, married, employed full-time) college students living with a pet dog or cat. The study categorized owner behaviors as essential, standard, enriched, or luxury care. Almost all participants reported engaging in essential care behaviors, with numbers declining from category to category. Pet attachment scores appeared related to standard and enriched care behaviors but not to essential care. Too few participants reported doing luxury care behaviors to link them to attachment. The results suggest that even pet owners reporting low attachment provide beneficial care and attention to their pets and that pet attachment may be of limited use when looking at the benefit of the human-animal bond to the companion animal.     

The Use of Positive Reinforcement in Training Zebra Sharks (Stegostoma fasciatum)

Few studies have examined how personality traits may be related to the amounts and types of attachments humans have toward companion animals (pets). In this study, 1,098 companion animal guardians (owners) completed a survey that included the Big Five Inventory, the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale, and the Pet Attachment Questionnaire. Each participant chose whether he or she identified as a Cat Person, Dog Person, Both, or Neither. Results indicated that neuroticism, conscientiousness, choosing a dog as a favorite pet, and identifying as a Cat Person, Dog Person, or Both predicted affection for a pet. Conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness decreased avoidant attachment to pets, and neuroticism increased anxious attachment to pets. Both dogs and cats could benefit from pet owners who are conscientious, and there may be some benefits of neuroticism in pet owners. The findings of this study will advance understanding of the human–animal bond. As this understanding increases, measurements of human attachment and personality may be useful for the development of tools that could assist shelter employees and veterinarians in counseling people about pet ownership.     

The Development and Factor Structure of a Questionnaire Measure of the Strength of Attachment to Pet Dogs

ABSTRACT

A 35-item questionnaire (DAQ: Dog Attachment Questionnaire) involving 5-point Likert responses to items designed to measure aspects of attachment to a pet/companion animal dog was constructed. The content was derived from theoretical treatments of adult human attachment, used in a broad sense as equivalent to an affectional bond. Items based on four groupings were modified for a pet dog. Two samples of dog owners (n = 112 and 306, respectively) were used to investigate the factor structure of the questionnaire, using first exploratory and then confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The questionnaire showed high overall internal consistency, it indicated a high level of attachment to the pets, and factor analysis indicated a four-factor solution, which was replicated using CFA in Sample 2. Three of these factors produced reliable subscales, indicating (1) degree of closeness with the pet; (2) caring and protecting the pet, and companionship; (3) as a secure base and a source of emotional comfort and well-being. In sample 2, Total DAQ scores were positively related to a single-item pictorial measure of attachment to the dog, and were higher for women than men but not associated with age or duration of ownership.     

The Responsible Dog Owner: The Construction of Responsibility

ABSTRACT

Policy and campaigning messages related to dog ownership and welfare center on the concept of responsible ownership. However, the perspectives and experiences of pet owners and how they perceive and perform their responsibilities has not been studied in depth. This qualitative study used conversations about owning and walking dogs in order to elucidate beliefs and views about responsibility in dog ownership. Data comprised 12 in-depth interviews with dog-owning households, 14 short interviews with dog owners while walking their dogs or representing their breed at a dog show, and autoethnography of the first author’s experiences owning and walking dogs. All participants considered themselves responsible dog owners, yet there was great variation in key aspects of their dog-owning behavior. The feelings of responsibility were rooted in the valued unconditional and reciprocal love that owners believed underpinned their human–dog bond. Dogs were described as dependents, similar to, but different from, children. In deciding how to look after their dogs, owners sought to balance their views of dogs as kin, having individual needs to be met, with consideration of the needs of others. Four processes through which issues of irresponsible dog ownership may arise were suggested: owner–dog relationship being too weak or too strong; differences in interpretation of what is best for the dog; difficulties predicting and avoiding situations of conflict; and differences in tolerance of negative impacts of dog ownership. While “responsible dog ownership” has considerable appeal as a concept, how it is perceived and interpreted varies so extensively that simply telling owners that they should “be responsible” is of limited use as a message to promote behavior change. Facilitating “responsible dog ownership” and reducing “irresponsible dog owner” behaviors relies on a detailed understanding of the variables which influence how the dog’s role is constructed within the family and the wider society.     

Influence of pet ownership on opinions towards the use of animals in biomedical research

Abstract

The present study investigated the relationship between pet ownership and opinions on the use of animals in medical research. A questionnaire was answered by 484 schoolteacher students and 156 pre-school teacher students from Uppsala University, Sweden. Animal use was found to be of significant importance for developing treatments for human disease by 59 percent of respondents, but 15 percent did not agree. Forty-four percent thought that it was morally acceptable to use animals in biomedical research, while 25 percent did not. A significantly higher proportion of those who reported experience in the use of animals in research from university teaching morally accepted and understood the importance of using animals in biomedical research, compared with students without this background. Fifty-eight percent of the students were pet owners and the most common species owned were the cat and the dog. A lower proportion of pet owners (39%) found it acceptable to use pet species in biomedical research than did non-pet owners (52%).     

Pet owner behaviors and attachment to yard versus house dogs

Abstract

The majority of research on the human–nonhuman animal bond has considered its advantages for the human. Research investigating the benefits of the bond for the companion animal has focused primarily on the relationship between owner attachment and the relinquishment or abandonment of pets. Shore, Douglas and Riley (2005) compiled a list of 67 behaviors of pet owners of potential benefit to the dog or cat, categorized the behaviors as Essential, Standard, Enriched, or Luxury Care, and studied the relationship between these behaviors and a measure of attachment. The present study continues the investigation of more routine pet-keeping activities by examining the prevalence of such behaviors among a subset of dog owners who keep their dogs out of doors as compared with those whose dogs live primarily in the house. Participants were 322 largely non-traditional college students at a university in the Midwestern United States. Scores on two attachment measures were significantly higher for owners of house dogs as compared with those of owners of yard dogs. Although the majority of both house and yard dogs received basic care, fewer yard dogs received as high levels of attention to some of their physical and safety needs. The gap between yard and house dogs widened as the category of care moved from Essential to Enriched. Involvement in agility training, being taken to events for pets, and exercising with a member of the family were notable exceptions, in that they occurred in equal proportions for yard and house dogs, and perhaps represent opportunities for yard dogs to be in closer contact with a human caretaker. The results suggest that adoptions of sheltered or rescued dogs to people who plan to keep the pet outside can be made with confidence that the dog will be cared for, but that programs to educate the public on the social needs of dogs and the benefits of keeping dogs indoors might result in increased attention to the needs of the animals, strengthening of the human–nonhuman animal bond, and reduction of relinquishment.     

The Relationship between Empathy,Perception of Pain and Attitudes toward Pets among Norwegian Dog Owners

ABSTRACT

Anthropomorphism, attachment level, and belief in animal mind, as well as owners' level of empathy and attitudes toward their pets, are some of the factors that affect human–animal interactions. Owners' ability to identify painful conditions in their pets may have important consequences for the welfare of these animals. In addition to characterizing the typical Norwegian dog owner, the aim of this work was to study the relationship between empathy, attitudes, and perceived animal pain. A sample of 3,413 dog owners in Norway received an internet-based questionnaire (QuestBack?), to which1896 responded. The questionnaire included four parts: demographics, the Pet Attitude Scale (PAS), the Animal Empathy Scale (AES), and the Pain Assessment Instrument (PAI). For the PAI, participants were presented with 17 photos, showing dogs experiencing painful situations of varying degrees, and were asked to rate the level of pain they believed each animal was enduring, using a Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). Results showed that Norwegian dog owners had very high levels of animal-directed empathy and equally high levels of positive attitudes toward pets. There were differences based on gender, childhood pet keeping, income and education. Differences were also found rooted in owners' use of their dog, whether kept for companionship or hunting, as well as household size, an indication of human social relations. A strong, positive correlation (r = 0.58) was found between animal-directed empathy and positive attitudes toward pets. Empathy was found to be the best predictor of how people rated pain in dogs. The correlations were, however, moderate, indicating that other processes are also involved when observing animals in pain.     

Biopsychosocial Factors and Cognitive Function in Cat Ownership and Attachment in Community-dwelling Older Adults

ABSTRACT

Few studies consider the health benefits of pet ownership from a biopsychosocial perspective, and a paucity of studies investigate cat ownership. The current study was designed to determine if psychosocial factors (stress, loneliness, and depression), biological levels of stress and inflammation (salivary cortisol, interleukin-1β, and C-reactive protein [CRP]), and cognitive function were associated with companion cat ownership/attachment in community-dwelling older adults. Community-dwelling older adults (n = 96, mean age = 76.6 years) who either owned a cat and no dog (n = 41) or owned neither a cat nor a dog (n = 55) completed questionnaires (Perceived Stress Scale, Revised–UCLA Loneliness Scale, Geriatric Depression Scale-Short Form, Montreal Cognitive Assessment, and Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale) and provided saliva specimens which were assayed for stress and inflammatory biomarkers. The majority of participants screened positive for mild cognitive impairment, reported low levels of stress, loneliness, and depression, and the biomarkers reflected fairly low levels of stress and inflammation. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that psychosocial factors, salivary biomarkers, and cognitive function were not significantly associated with cat ownership. Age was the only significant predictor of cat ownership (OR = 0.92, p < 0.01) with the odds of cat ownership decreasing by 8.3% per year of advancing age. On average, cat owners were “somewhat attached” to their cats; however, 26% were “strongly attached” to their cats. Correlation analyses revealed the level of attachment to cats was not associated with study outcomes. These results show that cat ownership declined with each advancing year, which lessens the opportunity for older adults to form attachment bonds. The level of pet attachment supports the consideration of cats as a source of an attachment relationship for older adults, including those with cognitive impairment.     

An Examination of Adult Women’s Sleep Quality and Sleep Routines in Relation to Pet Ownership and Bedsharing

ABSTRACT

People in many parts of the world commonly share their beds not only with human partners but also with dogs and cats. Self-report and actigraphy data have shown that sleeping with an adult human partner has both positive and negative impacts on human sleep, but there has been little exploration of the impacts that pets have on human sleep quality. We collected survey data online from 962 adult women living in the United States to investigate relationships between pet ownership and human sleep. Fifty-five percent of participants shared their bed with at least one dog and 31% with at least one cat. In addition, 57% of participants shared their bed with a human partner. Our findings did not show a strong relationship between pet ownership status or bedsharing conditions and sleep quality as assessed by the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), although according to this measure, a high percentage of study participants did experience sleep quality deficits. It is possible that pet ownership contributed to the high global PSQI scores we observed, especially since all but 7% of participants resided with dogs and/or cats. Other measures included in this study indicate that dogs and cats, and where they sleep, may indeed affect sleep habits and perceptions of sleep quality. Dog owners had earlier bedtimes and wake times than individuals who had cats but no dogs. Compared with human bed partners, dogs who slept in the owner’s bed were perceived to disturb sleep less and were associated with stronger feelings of comfort and security. Conversely, cats who slept in their owner’s bed were reported to be equally as disruptive as human partners, and were associated with weaker feelings of comfort and security than both human and dog bed partners. Follow-up research is necessary to determine if pet owners’ perceptions of pets’ impacts on their sleep align with objective measures of sleep quality.     

The Emotional Lives of Companion Animals: Attachment and Subjective Claims by Owners of Cats and Dogs

There is a growing body of scientific evidence supporting the existence of emotions in nonhuman animals. Companion-animal owners show a strong connection and attachment to their animals and readily assign emotions to them. In this paper we present information on how the attachment level of companion-animal owners correlates with their attribution of emotions to their companion cat or dog and their attribution of mirrored emotions. The results of an online questionnaire, completed by 1,023 Dutch-speaking cat and/or dog owners (mainly in the Netherlands and Belgium), suggest that owners attribute several emotions to their pets. Respondents attributed all posited basic (anger, joy [happiness], fear, surprise, disgust, and sadness) and complex (shame, jealousy, disappointment, and compassion) emotions to their companion animals, with a general trend toward basic emotions (with the exception of sadness) being more commonly attributed than complex emotions. All pet owners showed strong attachment to their companion animal(s), with the degree of attachment (of both cat and dog owners) varying significantly with education level and gender. Owners who ascribed human characteristics to their dog or cat also scored higher on the Pet Bonding Scale (PBS). Finally, owners who found it pleasant to pet their dog or cat had a higher average PBS score than those who did not like to do so. The relationship between owners’ attributions of mirrored emotions and the degree of attachment to dogs was significant for all emotions, whilst for cats this relationship was significant only for joy, sadness, surprise, shame, disappointment, and compassion.     

Psychological Mechanisms Predicting Wellbeing in Pet Owners: Rogers’ Core Conditions versus Bowlby’s Attachment

While pet ownership may confer physical and psychological health benefits, existing research presents inconsistent findings, and the psychological mechanisms through which health benefits might be conferred are unknown. Exploring human–pet relationships from the perspectives of Bowlby’s attachment theory, namely “attachment-related anxiety” and “attachment-related avoidance,” and Rogers’ core conditions including “unconditional positive regard” and “empathy” may highlight the psychological mechanisms involved. This study compared quality of life (QOL) and psychopathology in pet owners with those without pets. In the pet owners, we additionally assessed pet attachment, and perceived empathy, unconditionality, and congruence in the human–pet relationships. We then compared the relative value of Bowlby’s attachment versus Rogers’ core conditions in human– pet relationships as predictors of wellbeing in pet owners. Overall, pet owners and non-pet owners did not significantly differ in terms of QOL or psychopathology. However, in pet owners, secure pet attachments were associated with lower psychological distress and psychopathology, and those perceiving higher levels of Rogers’ core conditions from their pets had higher QOL. Bowlby’s pet attachment insecurity predicted psychological distress and psychopathology, while Rogers’ total core conditions in pets were significantly predictive of QOL of owners. Differences in wellbeing may not be reliably discernable between pet owners and non-pet owners, as wellbeing is related not to pet ownership alone but to qualities of individual human–pet relationships. The results provide new information about psychological mechanisms through which human–pet interactions are conferred, and support for the applicability of both Bowlby’s and Rogers’ concepts.     

Psychological Health in a Population of Australian Cat Owners

Abstract

Ninety-two cat owners, and 70 non-pet subjects were surveyed to determine the relationship between psychological health and pet ownership. The survey employed measures of general psychological health, depression, state and trait anxiety, sleep disturbance, nurturance, attitudes toward pets, social desirability, and a life events inventory. The study hypothesized that cat owners would be more psychologically healthy than non-pet owners and that this difference would be reflected in the cat owners having lower scores on the measures of general psychological health, depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbance. The study also proposed that cat owners would be more nurturing and have a more favorable attitude toward pets than non-pet owners. Findings showed that the cat owners had significantly lower scores for general psychological health, indicating a lower level of psychiatric disturbance, and could be considered to have better psychological health than the non-pet subjects. The cat owners also had significantly higher pet attitude scores than non-pet subjects, indicating a more favorable attitude toward pets. No significant differences were found for depression, anxiety, sleep disturbance, nurturance, social desirability, or life events for cat owners and non-pet subjects.     

A Survey of Pet-and Non-Pet-Owning Swedish Adolescents: Demographic Differences and Health Issues

ABSTRACT

The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of pet ownership in adolescents in Sweden and establish whether any gender, age or health-related differences exist between those who own pets and those who do not. In addition, the study aimed to explore the relationships between species of pet, age, gender, and other socio-demographic variables and the perceived importance of pets. Three age groups (13–14 years-old, 15–16 years-old, and 17–18 years-old) of adolescents, resident in a single county in Sweden, were surveyed using the questionnaire “Liv och Hälsa Ung” (“Youth Life and Health”). A total of 8,709 respondents were included in the analysis (pet owners = 5,793; non-pet owners = 2,916). Associations between importance of the pet and demographic variables and general self-rated health were investigated using logistic regression analysis. The prevalence of pet owners in the sample was 65%, and the most common types of pets were, in descending order of popularity, cats, dogs, rodents, fish/reptiles, and horses. Most of the pet owners said their pets were very or quite important to them, for the three age groups (73.1–88.6%). In general, pets were more important for the female respondents. Importance was dependent on type of pet, with male and female dog owners and female horse owners rating their pets as more important than the owners of other species of pet. Respondents who did not own a pet were more physically active than their pet- owning peers. Pet owners with the best self-rated health also attributed the greatest importance to their pet. However, adolescents with pets reported more psychological problems and somatic health aspects than those who did not own pets. This finding calls for further studies to be conducted, with designs allowing causal conclusions to be drawn.     

Pets go to College: The Influence of Pets on Students' Perceptions of Faculty and Their Offices

ABSTRACT

The present study examined the effects of the presence of a pet in a professor's office on college students' perceptions of the office and the professor. Students (n=257) were randomly assigned to view a slide of an office that contained either a dog, a cat, or no animal. Students perceived the office to be more comfortable and the professor to be friendlier when there was a dog in the office than when there was a cat or no animal in the office. They also perceived the professor who occupied the office with a cat to be less busy than the professors who occupied the offices with a dog and with no animal. These results imply that professors may be able to positively influence students' impressions of them by having a dog or a cat in their offices.     

Children and Their Pets

Abstract

This study examines the frequency of pet possession and its covariation with family variables (family size, housing conditions, parents' employment, maternal support) among elementary school children. Additionally, children's pet caring activities and their emotional relationship to pets were investigated. Subjects were 426 fourth graders (213 boys, 213 girls). Results indicate that pets are very frequently present in families, with the dog as the most common and most preferred animal. Parents' employment and maternal support do not covariate with pet possession, but housing conditions do. The child-pet relationship depends on childrens' gender, pet type and status of ownership (child vs. family). The intensity of pet caring is mainly related to pet type and ownership, whereas the quality of emotional contact depends on pet type and childrens' gender. On the background of manifold articles reporting case studies and educational, respectively clinical counseling experiences the discussion emphasizes the need for sound empirical research on the relationship between personality characteristics and pet ownership.     

Exotic Animal Companions and the Personality of Their Owners

ABSTRACT

The present study explored sex-specific differences in the Big Five factors of personality between different pet ownership groups, in order to understand individual differences in the choice of companion animals. A total of 250 pet owners completed a German version of the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). For the first analysis, participants were divided into four broad groups: those owning traditional pets (e.g., cats, dogs), those owning cold-blooded exotic pets, those owning warm-blooded exotic pets, and those not owning animals. For the second analysis, participants were subdivided into nine groups, based on species of animal owned: cats, dogs, birds, fish, reptiles, spider/insect, small mammals, owners of many different animals, and non-owners. In both analyses, separate analyses of variance were applied to the scores of the NEO-FFI scales. Interaction effects between sex and several ownership groups on the traits Openness to Experience and Agreeableness were found in both analyses. Female owners of traditional pets scored, for example, significantly lower on openness to experience than female owners of cold-blooded exotic pets as well as male owners of traditional pets. Furthermore, female owners of cold-blooded exotic pets scored significantly higher on openness to experience than their male counterparts. Regarding agreeableness, male owners of cold-blooded exotic pets scored significantly lower than their female counterparts as well as male owners of traditional pets. These and other results indicate that personality may affect choice of pets—but in different directions for the two sexes.     

Successful Aging,Social Support,and Ownership of a Companion Animal

Studies consistently find that higher levels of social support improve the psychological and physiological health of older people, but findings from empirical research are mixed regarding the presence of a “pet effect”— the idea that living with an animal can improve human health, psychological wellbeing, and longevity. We examined the assocations among social support, dog and cat ownership, and successful aging in a panel of 5,688 people between the ages of 50 and 74 years. Utilizing GLM, we tested for the presence of a complement (independent or additive effects) and/or hydraulic (interactive effect) association of pets and human support on four indicators of successful aging (pain, functional ability, chronic illnesses, and subjective successful aging). Supporting the hydraulic hypothesis, we found that having a dog was associated with fewer chronic illnesses, higher functional ability, and higher levels of subjective success when people lack human support. Similarly, having both a dog and a cat was associated with higher functional ability, less pain, and higher levels of subjective success when people lack human support. Supporting the complement hypothesis, we found that having a cat was associated with more chronic illnesses and lower levels of subjective successful aging. Findings carry practical implications for supporting pet ownership of older people, suggesting that dogs have a positive association with successful aging.