Dogs respond appropriately to cues of humans' attentional focus

Dogs' ability to recognise cues of human visual attention was studied in different experiments. Study 1 was designed to test the dogs' responsiveness to their owner's tape-recorded verbal commands (Down!) while the Instructor (who was the owner of the dog) was facing either the dog or a human partner or none of them, or was visually separated from the dog. Results show that dogs were more ready to follow the command if the Instructor attended them during instruction compared to situations when the Instructor faced the human partner or was out of sight of the dog. Importantly, however, dogs showed intermediate performance when the Instructor was orienting into 'empty space' during the re-played verbal commands. This suggests that dogs are able to differentiate the focus of human attention. In Study 2 the same dogs were offered the possibility to beg for food from two unfamiliar humans whose visual attention (i.e. facing the dog or turning away) was systematically varied. The dogs' preference for choosing the attentive person shows that dogs are capable of using visual cues of attention to evaluate the human actors' responsiveness to solicit food-sharing. The dogs' ability to understand the communicatory nature of the situations is discussed in terms of their social cognitive skills and unique evolutionary history.     

Selection, acclimation, training, and preparation of dogs for the research setting

Dogs have made and will continue to make valuable contributions as animal models in biomedical research. A comprehensive approach from time of breeding through completion of in-life usage is necessary to ensure that high-quality dog models are used in studies. This approach ensures good care and minimizes the impact of interanimal variability on experimental results. Guidance related to choosing and developing high-quality laboratory dogs and managing canine research colonies is provided in this article. Ensuring that dogs are healthy, well adapted, and cooperative involves good communication between vendors, veterinarians, care staff, and researchers to develop appropriate dog husbandry programs. These programs are designed to minimize animal stress and distress from the postweaning period through the transfer and acclimation period within the research facility. Canine socialization and training programs provided by skilled personnel, together with comprehensive veterinary health programs, can further enhance animal welfare and minimize interanimal and group variability in studies.     

An Evaluation of a Pet Ownership Education Program for School Children

ABSTRACT

Children aged 5 to 6 years are disproportionately susceptible to dog bite attacks relative to the adult population and there is a need to provide them with well-validated education programs to teach correct behavior when interacting with dogs. The main aim of this study was to assess the immediate and longer-term learning outcomes of the Responsible Pet Ownership Program (RPOP), delivered to young Australian children in their preparatory year of primary schooling. A further aim was to investigate the impact of class size on learning outcomes of the RPOP. Children's ability to identify potentially dangerous dogs through canine body language, their knowledge of how to interact with dogs, and their knowledge of aspects of responsible pet ownership were assessed by measuring the immediate (within 2 weeks following the RPOP) and delayed (2 and 4 months post-RPOP) retention of this knowledge. Preparatory-aged children who had participated in the RPOP showed a better capacity to correctly identify emotions in cartoon, photographic, and video depictions of dogs than did those children who had not. In general, this effect did not persist 4 months after completion of the RPOP. In the case of the photographic presentations, children could correctly identify an angry dog, although this had disappeared in the groups that were assessed 2 and 4 months after the program. Children's role-play responses to interacting with a dog and its owner persisted for 4 months after the RPOP. In general, children did not identify dog behaviors that were relevant to the emotions of anger, fear, or happiness that had not been included in the RPOP. This suggests that there is specificity in the knowledge that the children received from the program. Children's knowledge of responsible pet ownership was higher for those who had just been through the program compared with those who had not. There was little evidence of retention of this information 2 and 4 months after instruction. Results suggest that the test measures used are appropriate to assess the effects of the program with young children. That little longer-term retention of information (especially 4 months post-RPOP) was evident indicates the need for follow-up instruction to improve the longer-term learning outcomes of the RPOP.     

Experiences,characteristics and treatment of women suffering from dog phobia

Abstract

Dog phobia is a complex psychological phenomenon classified under the anxiety disorders. Twelve female students suffering from dog phobia participated in this qualitative study which included an initial screening, therapeutic intervention and eight-month follow-up. Initial screening was conducted by means of a Fear Survey Schedule and observational assessment of non-verbal behavior during a behavioral approach test (dog stimulus). Therapeutic intervention involved a combination of systematic desensitization and instructional learning. Qualitative data analysis followed a phenomenological approach. The results indicate that the onset age of dog phobia varied from early childhood to late adolescence. Two-thirds of the participants reported a direct traumatic event as the onset context of their dog phobia, while 17% reported vicarious learning contexts and 17% an inability to recall the onset context. The most widely used sensory focal mode of perception during contact with dogs was visual cues, followed by auditory cues. Half of the participants reported “eye” aspects as the fear-evoking stimulus. A wide variety of anxieties and fears were found to co-occur with dog phobia, although some participants were still able to accommodate dogs and other companion animals in their lives. The post-study follow-up indicated that the intervention yielded significant real life improvement in 75% of the cases. The implications of this study for therapeutic situations are discussed.     

Autism and the mirror neuron system: insights from learning and teaching

Individuals with autism have difficulties in social learning domains which typically involve mirror neuron system (MNS) activation. However, the precise role of the MNS in the development of autism and its relevance to treatment remain unclear. In this paper, we argue that three distinct aspects of social learning are critical for advancing knowledge in this area: (i) the mechanisms that allow for the implicit mapping of and learning from others'' behaviour, (ii) the motivation to attend to and model conspecifics and (iii) the flexible and selective use of social learning. These factors are key targets of the Early Start Denver Model, an autism treatment approach which emphasizes social imitation, dyadic engagement, verbal and non-verbal communication and affect sharing. Analysis of the developmental processes and treatment-related changes in these different aspects of social learning in autism can shed light on the nature of the neuropsychological mechanisms underlying social learning and positive treatment outcomes in autism. This knowledge in turn may assist in developing more successful pedagogic approaches to autism spectrum disorder. Thus, intervention research can inform the debate on relations among neuropsychology of social learning, the role of the MNS, and educational practice in autism.     

Behavior of Children with Learning Disabilities Interacting With a Therapy Dog

ABSTRACT

Therapy using animals is now a widespread phenomenon, but some authorities have argued that there is insufficient evidence either to justify or to guide animal-assisted therapy. This reflects a paucity of adequate quantitative methodology for investigations in this area. The little research that has been carried out suggests that animal presence may increase general social behavior. Our study aimed to develop a methodology to investigate the effects of a dog on the behavior of children with severe learning disabilities. A repeated measures design was used to observe eight children with Down's syndrome in controlled sessions, under the direction of an adult. Each session consisted of seven minutes of interaction with a real dog, and seven minutes with an imitation dog. Differences in visual attending, and verbal and non-verbal initiation and response behaviors indicated that the real dog provided a more sustained focus for positive and co-operative interactions with itself and the adult, than did the imitation dog.     

The effect of ostensive cues on dogs’ performance in a manipulative social learning task

In contrast to animal social learning (e.g. dogs learning from observing another dog), humans typically teach by attracting the attention of the learner. Also during the training of dogs, humans tend to attract their attention in a similar way. Here, we investigated dogs’ ability to learn both from a dog and a human demonstrator in a manipulative task, where the models demonstrated which part of a box to manipulate in order to get a food reward. We varied the communicative context both during the dog and during the human demonstration comparably: a second experimenter directed the attention of the subjects to the model (dog/human ostensive demonstration) or remained silent (dog/human non-ostensive demonstration). Moreover, we investigated whether the training level of the dogs (well-trained vs. untrained) affected how the dogs performed in the manipulative tasks after the different demonstrations.We found that better trained dogs showed significantly better problem solving abilities. They paid more attention to the human demonstration than to the dog model, whereas such a difference in attentiveness of the less trained dogs was not found. Despite slight differences in paying attention to the different demonstrators, the presence of human or the dog demonstrators exerted equally effectiveness on the test performance of the dogs. However, the effectiveness of the demonstrations was significantly reduced if ostensive cues were given during the demonstrations by a second experimenter. Analysis of attentiveness and activity of the observer dogs during the demonstrations indicates that the reason for this negative effect was a combination of distracted attention paid to the demonstration and a higher level of excitement in the ostensive than in the non-ostensive demonstrations.This study suggests that third party communication during demonstration attracts dogs’ attention to the communicator instead of paying close attention to the model. We suggest that precise timing and synchronization of attention-calling and demonstration is necessary to avoid this distracting effect.     

Social Effects of a Dog's Presence on Children with Disabilities

ABSTRACT

Productive and positive interactions between dogs and humans have been documented in studies using dogs trained as companion animals and as assistants for people with disabilities. In this study, the effects of the presence of a dog on social interactions between three 5–9-year-old children with developmental disabilities and their teacher at an elementary school were analyzed. A single-case experimental design with repeated measures and with replicated effects across participants was employed to assess changes in interactions from baseline to an intervention condition. During baseline, interactions were assessed in the social environment of a room adjacent to the classroom, which had a toy dog and other play materials, during time with the teacher. The experimental change introduced sequentially and systematically across the participants was the additional presence of an obedience-trained dog, a German Shepherd/Labrador Retriever cross. Interactions between the children and their teacher were examined during morning sessions using reliable direct observation interval recording procedures. All participants demonstrated an increase in overall positive initiated behaviors (verbal and non-verbal) toward both the teacher and the dog. The children also showed an overall decrease in negative initiated behaviors. In addition, observational ratings showed positive generalization of improved social responsiveness by the children in their classroom following the completion of the experimental sessions. This study supports the position that children with developmental disabilities benefit from the use of skilled dogs as teaching assistants and therapeutic adjuncts.     

The pet dogs ability for learning from a human demonstrator in a detour task is independent from the breed and age

There are many indications and much practical knowledge about the different tasks which various breeds of dogs are selected for. Correspondingly these different breeds are known to possess different physical and mental abilities. We hypothesized that commonly kept breeds will show differences in their problem solving ability in a detour task around a V-shaped fence, and also, that breed differences will affect their learning ability from a human demonstrator, who demonstrates a detour around the fence. Subjects were recruited in Hungarian pet dog schools. We compared the results of the 10 most common breeds in our sample when they were tested in the detour task without human demonstration. There was no significant difference between the latencies of detour, however, there was a trend that German Shepherd dogs were the quickest and Giant Schnauzers were the slowest in this test. For testing the social learning ability of dogs we formed three breed groups (“utility”, “shepherd” and “hunting”). There were no significant differences between these, all the breed groups learned equally well from the human demonstrator. However, we found that dogs belonging to the “shepherd” group looked back more frequently to their owner than the dogs in the “hunting” group. Further, we have found that the age of pet dogs did not affect their social learning ability in the detour task. Our results showed that the pet status of a dog has probably a stronger effect on its cognitive performance and human related behaviour than its age or breed. These results emphasize that socialization and common activities with the dog might overcome the possible breed differences, if we give the dogs common problem solving, or social learning tasks.     

A detector dog for screwworms (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

A male German wirehaired pointer, Canis familiaris L., was trained to search for and locate screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel); pupae; and animals infested with screwworms. The command, "find it" led to the detection of a screwworm-infested animal and the command "search" led to the detection of screwworm pupae. After approximately 5 mo of training, the dog could detect screwworm-infested animals. After 3 mo more of training, the dog could detect screwworm pupae. Through 7 August 1989, the dog had a success rate of 100% (265 tests) with training dummies and 94.7% (18 successes for 19 tests) with screwworm-infested animals, for an overall success rate of 99.7% (285 successes for 286 tests). Use of detector dogs at quarantine stations could result in increased efficiency, economic savings, and decreased possibility of reintroduction of screwworms into eradicated areas.     

Fear of dogs in a community sample: Effects of age,gender and prior experience of canine aggression

Abstract

An investigation was conducted into human fear of dogs and experiences of canine aggression in an adult community sample (n = 292). Consistent with expectations, it was found that, while fear of dogs was relatively common (present in almost half the respondents), fear of dog attacks was less so, and extreme fear of dog attacks was very rare. Women, middle-aged and older adults were more likely to fear dogs than men and younger adults, while older people were more likely than younger ones to fear dog attacks. Reported encounters with canine aggression, particularly threatening behavior, were relatively common, but having been attacked by a dog was less strongly related to fear of dogs than having been threatened by a dog. Logistic regression analyses revealed that being female, having been threatened by a dog, and being older were strong predictors of dog-related fear, while being older and obtaining higher scores on a measure of trait anxiety predicted fear of dog attacks.     

Molecular epidemiology of hepatitis E virus infections in Shanghai, China

Background

Avian origin canine influenza virus was reported in Korea. The dog to dog contact transmission of the avian origin canine influenza virus (CIV) H3N2 and CIV H3N8 was shown by experimental contact transmission. This study was focused on viral excretion and fever in order to elucidate the epidemiological associations which might be helpful to control the disease transmissions in CIV outbreak in dogs.

Methods

An influenza seronegative 10-week-old Beagle dog was experimentally inoculated with the canine influenza virus A/canine/01/2007, subtype H3N2. Eight hours after inoculation, the infected dog was cohoused with seven uninfected Beagle dogs. Clinical signs including fever were recorded for 14 days post inoculation.

Results

The infected dog and four of seven contact dogs in the study showed clinical signs (sneezing, nasal discharge and coughing) during the study. Viral shedding occurred in all of the animals tested and began on 1 to 6 DPI in dogs with clinical signs. Elevated body temperatures above 39.5°C (geometric mean temperature of 39.86°C±0.49) were observed in all symptomatic dogs. The mean viral titer during fever was 2.99 log EID₅₀/ml, which was significantly higher than the viral titer detected in the non fever.

Conclusions

The data show that contact dogs with a canine influenza infected dog shed different levels of virus in their nasal excretions and demonstrate that clinical signs, including fever, significantly correlate with the viral shedding.     

Gender Differences in Owners Interacting with Pet Dogs: An Observational Study

Many studies show that people form strong affectional bonds with their dogs, treating them like family members or children. The present study investigates differences between women and men owners during interactions with their dogs, in a situation designed to investigate attachment and, thus, to promote emotional and affective responses: the Ainsworth's Strange Situation. Twenty‐five dog owners, 10 men and 15 women, were observed during free interactions with their pets in an adapted version of the ‘strange situation procedure’. Their behaviour towards their pets was videorecorded. Talking to the dog was evaluated together with the occurrence of affiliative and play behaviours. The owner's level of attachment to the dog was assessed using a questionnaire. Women and men differed in the use of verbal communication. Women talked more than men and had a shorter latency in starting talking. Their utterances resembled more closely infant‐directed speech or ‘motherese’. In contrast, there were no clear gender differences in affiliative and play behaviours. Both women and men engaged in play with their dogs and provided physical comfort. No differences emerged in the level of attachment reported by women and men owners in the questionnaire. These data support the hypothesis that the behaviour of modern pet owners towards their dogs is an interspecific parental behaviour, and suggest that behaviours evolved to provide care and comfort to human infants have been co‐opted for interacting with other social partners. The difference in verbal communication between women and men is in agreement with an evolutionary scenario suggesting a greater pre‐disposition in women to use language as a relational tool.     

Prairie dog presence affects occurrence patterns of disease vectors on small mammals

Wildlife disease is recognized as a burgeoning threat to imperiled species and aspects of host and vector community ecology have been shown to have significant effects on disease dynamics. The black‐tailed prairie dog is a species of conservation concern that is highly susceptible to plague, a flea‐transmitted disease. Prairie dogs (Cynomys) alter the grassland communities in which they exist and have been shown to affect populations of small rodents, which are purported disease reservoirs. To explore potential ecological effects of black‐tailed prairie dogs on plague dynamics, we quantified flea occurrence patterns on small mammals in the presence and absence of prairie dogs at 8 study areas across their geographic range. Small mammals sampled from prairie dog colonies showed significantly higher flea prevalence, flea abundance, and relative flea species richness than those sampled from off‐colony sites. Successful plague transmission likely is dependent on high prevalence and abundance of fleas that can serve as competent vectors. Prairie dogs may therefore facilitate the maintenance of plague by increasing flea occurrence on potential plague reservoir species. Our data demonstrate the previously unreported ecological influence of prairie dogs on vector species assemblages, which could influence disease dynamics.     

A Pilot Study to Evaluate an Elementary School-Based Dog Bite Prevention Program

ABSTRACT

The primary objective of this program evaluation was to determine if a school-based education program is an effective means of informing elementary school-aged children enrolled in second through fourth grades about dog bite safety—the awareness of proper behavior when in the company of dogs to prevent bites, injuries, or fatalities. The pilot program, featuring written materials and a video, was developed to teach dog bite safety, and questionnaires were designed to assess the program. Students (n=486) from seven schools from Montgomery and Prince George's Counties in Maryland, USA participated. Pre- and post-program questionnaires assessed students' interactions, encounters, and relationships with dogs, as well as use of program materials, and changes in understanding about dog behavior, body language, and bite avoidance. The program results appeared to be highly effective in helping children understand how to prevent or avoid potentially threatening situations involving dogs. The program was most effective at teaching children that: (1) neighborhood and family dogs are most likely to cause dog bite-related injuries, (2) they should never run away from a dog, and (3) they should never touch a dog that is sleeping or eating. For most groups, there was also an increased level of recognition of canine body language. Almost half of the participants indicated that they had been bitten in the past, and over 80% knew the attacking dog. Finally, the findings suggest that an age-appropriate dog bite safety program delivered in an elementary school setting can be effective in producing awareness about preventing dog bite-related injuries. Future investigations should concentrate on monitoring actual changes in child behavior.     

Two Sides of the City: Dog-keeping Practices in Russian Urban Areas

This article examines dog–owner relations and dog ownership in Omsk, Russia. We describe typical dog-keeping practices and reveal how diverse urban environments can influence these practices. A two-stage survey was conducted in 2014 to determine the numbers and management of dogs owned. In total, some 1,583 households at the first stage of the research and 323 households at the second stage were interviewed face-to-face. About 23% of all households in Omsk owned dogs, but this proportion varied markedly for different parts of the city. In the city's single-story area, 71.5% of households had dogs, while in the multi-story area this was only 10.8%. Dog-keeping practices were different in these areas. Significant differences in these practices were shown for almost all aspects: the selection criteria, dog feeding, veterinary treatment, dog walking, the roles of dogs, and owners’ attitudes toward them. Owners living in the single-story area demonstrated a utilitarian or functional approach to their dogs—influencing the sex, size, and the breed of the animal. Dogs often lived outside the house; they were vaccinated and taken to the veterinarian less often than dogs from the multi-story area. The owners in the multi-story area described more affectionate feelings toward their dogs. This is reflected in both the choice and treatment of the animals. We observed a larger proportion of pedigree dogs, a larger proportion of female animals, more vaccinations, and the owners making a variety of purchases for their dogs.     

Factors Influencing Owner Satisfaction With Companion-Dog-Training Facilities

The aim of this study was to survey people currently attending companion-dog-training facilities about their reasons for attending training, their expectations prior to training, their training experiences, and the factors contributing to their satisfaction with these experiences. The 178 participants indicated that they experienced few canine behavioral difficulties prior to attending training, with factors other than dog behavior influencing their decision to attend a particular facility. Features identified as important were characteristics of the instructors and the facility itself, opportunities for the dog caretaker (owner) to develop dog-training skills and knowledge, and specific canine behavior outcomes. Satisfaction was a multidimensional concept: satisfaction with the instructors and facility being dissociable from satisfaction with progress made by the dog and handler. Each of these represented different aspects of the training experience. Training facilities may need to address a wide range of issues to engage additional dog owners in training activities. Identification of these issues is an important first step in this process.     

Factors influencing owner satisfaction with companion-dog-training facilities

The aim of this study was to survey people currently attending companion-dog-training facilities about their reasons for attending training, their expectations prior to training, their training experiences, and the factors contributing to their satisfaction with these experiences. The 178 participants indicated that they experienced few canine behavioral difficulties prior to attending training, with factors other than dog behavior influencing their decision to attend a particular facility. Features identified as important were characteristics of the instructors and the facility itself, opportunities for the dog caretaker (owner) to develop dog-training skills and knowledge, and specific canine behavior outcomes. Satisfaction was a multidimensional concept: satisfaction with the instructors and facility being dissociable from satisfaction with progress made by the dog and handler. Each of these represented different aspects of the training experience. Training facilities may need to address a wide range of issues to engage additional dog owners in training activities. Identification of these issues is an important first step in this process.     

Structure and variation of three canine genes involved in serotonin binding and transport: the serotonin receptor 1A gene (htr1A), serotonin receptor 2A gene (htr2A), and serotonin transporter gene (slc6A4)

Aggressive behavior is the most frequently encountered behavioral problem in dogs. Abnormalities in brain serotonin metabolism have been described in aggressive dogs. We studied canine serotonergic genes to investigate genetic factors underlying canine aggression. Here, we describe the characterization of three genes of the canine serotonergic system: the serotonin receptor 1A and 2A gene (htr1A and htr2A) and the serotonin transporter gene (slc6A4). We isolated canine bacterial artificial chromosome clones containing these genes and designed oligonucleotides for genomic sequencing of coding regions and intron-exon boundaries. Golden retrievers were analyzed for DNA sequence variations. We found two nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the coding sequence of htr1A; one SNP close to a splice site in htr2A; and two SNPs in slc6A4, one in the coding sequence and one close to a splice site. In addition, we identified a polymorphic microsatellite marker for each gene. Htr1A is a strong candidate for involvement in the domestication of the dog. We genotyped the htr1A SNPs in 41 dogs of seven breeds with diverse behavioral characteristics. At least three SNP haplotypes were found. Our results do not support involvement of the gene in domestication.