Use of Feral Cats in Psychotherapy

ABSTRACT

Animal-assisted therapy typically involves the use of domesticated, well controlled animals that are trained to permit approach behavior and interaction by patients. This report describes the use of undomesticated, feral cats as adjuncts to psychotherapy. This approach provides advantages not attainable when domesticated pets are used. Case examples are provided to illuminate the various applications of this unique therapeutic technique.     

The Diet of Feral Cats (

Feral cats became established on Raoul Island some time between 1836 and 1872; the prey available to them included a great variety of nesting seabirds, few of which are present now, landbirds and kiore (Rattus exulans). Norway rats reached the island in 1921, providing additional prey for cats, but also another potential predator of seabirds. The diet of cats is described from guts and scats collected between 1972 and 1980. Rats are the main food, with land birds second in importance, and seabirds are now a minor item. More than 90% of the rats eaten by cats are kiore although more Norway rats than kiore are trapped. Eradicating cats from Raoul Island is feasible but because Norway rats too are important predators of birds on islands, it is likely that eradicating cats without also eradicating Norway rats will do little to restore the diversity of bird species on Raoul Island, although the densities of a few species now present might be increased.     

Feral Cats Are Better Killers in Open Habitats,Revealed by Animal-Borne Video

One of the key gaps in understanding the impacts of predation by small mammalian predators on prey is how habitat structure affects the hunting success of small predators, such as feral cats. These effects are poorly understood due to the difficulty of observing actual hunting behaviours. We attached collar-mounted video cameras to feral cats living in a tropical savanna environment in northern Australia, and measured variation in hunting success among different microhabitats (open areas, dense grass and complex rocks). From 89 hours of footage, we recorded 101 hunting events, of which 32 were successful. Of these kills, 28% were not eaten. Hunting success was highly dependent on microhabitat structure surrounding prey, increasing from 17% in habitats with dense grass or complex rocks to 70% in open areas. This research shows that habitat structure has a profound influence on the impacts of small predators on their prey. This has broad implications for management of vegetation and disturbance processes (like fire and grazing) in areas where feral cats threaten native fauna. Maintaining complex vegetation cover can reduce predation rates of small prey species from feral cat predation.     

The Howl and the Pussy: Feral Cats and Wild Dogs in the Australian Imagination

This paper looks at recent attention given to feral cats in Australia, particularly focusing on their symbolic status in eco-nationalist discourses. Australian eco-nationalism is a specific blend of environmentalist and patriotic sentiments which, in an exaggerated way, positions the feral cat as a rapacious European invader predating on native wild life. This vilification of the cat can be related to much earlier forms of (mainly European) symbolism associating the creature with femininity and evil, which I illustrate by looking at the manner in which the feral cat is opposed to the masculinised Australian wild dog—the dingo. I argue that the recent surfacing of this totemic opposition between ‘the howl and the pussycat’ is related to an eco-nationalist sense of place which simultaneously recognises and denies that the human colonisation of Australia was (and is) a form of feral invasion.     

Assessing Risks to Non-Target Species during Poison Baiting Programs for Feral Cats

Poison baiting is used frequently to reduce the impacts of pest species of mammals on agricultural and biodiversity interests. However, baiting may not be appropriate if non-target species are at risk of poisoning. Here we use a desktop decision tree approach to assess the risks to non-target vertebrate species in Australia that arise from using poison baits developed to control feral house cats (Felis catus). These baits are presented in the form of sausages with toxicant implanted in the bait medium within an acid-soluble polymer capsule (hard shell delivery vehicle, or HSDV) that disintegrates after ingestion. Using criteria based on body size, diet and feeding behaviour, we assessed 221 of Australia''s 3,769 native vertebrate species as likely to consume cat-baits, with 47 of these likely to ingest implanted HSDVs too. Carnivorous marsupials were judged most likely to consume both the baits and HSDVs, with some large-bodied and ground-active birds and reptiles also consuming them. If criteria were relaxed, a further 269 species were assessed as possibly able to consume baits and 343 as possibly able to consume HSDVs; most of these consumers were birds. One threatened species, the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) was judged as definitely able to consume baits with implanted HSDVs, whereas five threatened species of birds and 21 species of threatened mammals were rated as possible consumers. Amphibia were not considered to be at risk. We conclude that most species of native Australian vertebrates would not consume surface-laid baits during feral cat control programs, and that significantly fewer would be exposed to poisoning if HSDVs were employed. However, risks to susceptible species should be quantified in field or pen trials prior to the implementation of a control program, and minimized further by applying baits at times and in places where non-target species have little access.     

Landscape Management of Fire and Grazing Regimes Alters the Fine-Scale Habitat Utilisation by Feral Cats

Intensification of fires and grazing by large herbivores has caused population declines in small vertebrates in many ecosystems worldwide. Impacts are rarely direct, and usually appear driven via indirect pathways, such as changes to predator-prey dynamics. Fire events and grazing may improve habitat and/or hunting success for the predators of small mammals, however, such impacts have not been documented. To test for such an interaction, we investigated fine-scale habitat selection by feral cats in relation to fire, grazing and small-mammal abundance. Our study was conducted in north-western Australia, where small mammal populations are sensitive to changes in fire and grazing management. We deployed GPS collars on 32 cats in landscapes with contrasting fire and grazing treatments. Fine-scale habitat selection was determined using discrete choice modelling of cat movements. We found that cats selected areas with open grass cover, including heavily-grazed areas. They strongly selected for areas recently burnt by intense fires, but only in habitats that typically support high abundance of small mammals. Intense fires and grazing by introduced herbivores created conditions that are favoured by cats, probably because their hunting success is improved. This mechanism could explain why, in northern Australia, impacts of feral cats on small mammals might have increased. Our results suggest the impact of feral cats could be reduced in most ecosystems by maximising grass cover, minimising the incidence of intense fires, and reducing grazing by large herbivores.     

Feral Cat Globetrotters: genetic traces of historical human‐mediated dispersal

Endemic species on islands are highly susceptible to local extinction, in particular if they are exposed to invasive species. Invasive predators, such as feral cats, have been introduced to islands around the world, causing major losses in local biodiversity. In order to control and manage invasive species successfully, information about source populations and level of gene flow is essential. Here, we investigate the origin of feral cats of Hawaiian and Australian islands to verify their European ancestry and a potential pattern of isolation by distance. We analyzed the genetic structure and diversity of feral cats from eleven islands as well as samples from Malaysia and Europe using mitochondrial DNA (ND5 and ND6 regions) and microsatellite DNA data. Our results suggest an overall European origin of Hawaiian cats with no pattern of isolation by distance between Australian, Malaysian, and Hawaiian populations. Instead, we found low levels of genetic differentiation between samples from Tasman Island, Lana'i, Kaho'olawe, Cocos (Keeling) Island, and Asia. As these populations are separated by up to 10,000 kilometers, we assume an extensive passive dispersal event along global maritime trade routes in the beginning of the 19th century, connecting Australian, Asian, and Hawaiian islands. Thus, islands populations, which are characterized by low levels of current gene flow, represent valuable sources of information on historical, human‐mediated global dispersal patterns of feral cats.     

Eradication of Feral Cats (Felis catus) from Gabo Island, south-east Victoria

Summary Concerns about the effects of predation by Feral Cats ( Felis catus ) on native fauna, particularly breeding seabirds, precipitated a decision in 1987 to control and eventually eradicate cats from Gabo Island. The size of the population prior to control was at least 30 animals. A control programme, undertaken between 1987 and 1991, centred on shooting, trapping and an extensive 1080 poison-baiting programme. Trapping and shooting were ineffectual. Poisoning was the most successful and effective technique for the rapid and widespread reduction in the Feral Cat population on Gabo Island. The effectiveness of dead 1-day-old chickens as a poison carrier was demonstrated. Effective poison baiting was attributed to bait selection and strategic timing of baiting to periods when prey was at low levels. Outcomes from the trapping programme and post-control monitoring strongly suggested that the cat population had been reduced to only two or three animals, possibly of the same sex. Monitoring between 1992 and 1998 failed to record any evidence of cats, indicating that the cats remaining after poison baiting had been unable to sustain a viable population. On the basis of the available evidence, Feral Cats appear to have been successfully eradicated from Gabo Island.     

Male Reproductive Success in a Social Group of Urban Feral Cats (Felis catus L.)

Dominance rank, morphological characteristics and reproductive success of adult males were measured in a multi‐male multi‐female group of urban feral cats (Felis catus L.). Paternity of nine litters (34 kittens) of the domestic cat from six females was determined through microsatellites analyses at nine loci. The percentage of multiple paternities in this social group was as high as 78%. A positive correlation was found between male size/body weight and dominance. The males who sired the highest number of kittens were the dominant ones. Additionally, dominant males were more likely to be infected by the feline immunodeficiency virus, a virus transmitted by bites through aggressive interactions. Thus this study demonstrates that rank and body weight were both important in predicting the annual reproductive success. However, it shows that the reproductive benefit associated to rank may be balanced by cost due to at‐risk aggressive behaviour of dominant males.     

Intestinal Helminth Infections in Feral Cats and a Raccoon Dog on Aphaedo Island, Shinan-gun, with a Special Note on Gymnophalloides seoi Infection in Cats

Four feral cats and a raccoon dog purchased from a local collector on Aphaedo Island, Shinan-gun, where human Gymnophalloides seoi infections are known to be prevalent, were examined for their intestinal helminth parasites. From 2 of 4 cats, a total of 310 adult G. seoi specimens were recovered. Other helminths detected in cats included Heterophyes nocens (1,527 specimens), Pygidiopsis summa (131), Stictodora fuscata (4), Acanthotrema felis (2), Spirometra erinacei (15), toxocarids (4), and a hookworm (1). A raccoon dog was found to be infected with a species of echinostome (55), hookworms (7), toxocarids (3), P. summa (3), and S. erinacei (1). No G. seoi was found in the raccoon dog. The results indicate that feral cats and raccoon dogs on Aphaedo are natural definitive hosts for intestinal trematodes and cestodes, including G. seoi, H. nocens, and S. erinacei. It has been first confirmed that cats, a mammalian species other than humans, play the role of a natural definitive host for G. seoi on Aphaedo Island.     

The Legal Status of Cats in New Zealand: A Perspective on the Welfare of Companion,Stray, and Feral Domestic Cats (Felis catus)

Pinpointing and safeguarding the welfare status of domestic cats is problematic, especially in New Zealand where cats are introduced predators with significant impact on indigenous fauna. Usually the identification of welfare status depends on conservational, legal, and public attitudes that are often contrasting. Cats may rapidly transgress definitions placed on them, confounding attempts to categorize them. In 1 generation, cats can move from a human-dependent state (“stray” or “companion”) to wild (“feral”). Often this categorization uses arbitrary behavioral and or situational parameters; consequent treatment and welfare protection for these cats are similarly affected. Terminology used to describe cats is not equitable across research. However, the New Zealand Animal Welfare (Companion Cats) Code of Welfare 2007 seeks to create a new definition of the terms companion, stray, and feral. It distinguishes between cats who live within and without human social constructs. This legislation mandates that cats in human environments or indirectly dependent on humans cannot be classified as feral. Such definitions may prove vital when safeguarding the welfare of free-living domestic cats and cat colonies.     

Managing Feral Cats on a University's Campuses: How Many Are There and Is Sterilization Having an Effect?

Worldwide domestic and feral cat (Felis catus) numbers have increased. Concerns regarding high populations of feral cats in urban areas include wildlife predation, public nuisance, and disease. This study aimed to estimate the size of the feral cat population on 5 campuses of the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, to determine whether sterilization has an effect and to make management recommendations. The study used both the total count and mark-recapture methods to estimate the feral cat population on each campus. The study chose a noninvasive method of taking photographs to “mark” individuals and record those who were sterilized. The study estimated a total of 186 cats on all campuses and density at 161 cats km^?2. There was a negative relationship between sterilization and numbers. Sites with higher sterilization showed a lower proportion of younger cats. At the average sterilization of 55%, the population, according to predictions, would remain stable at fecundity, survival, and immigration rates reported by cat caretakers. However, caretakers underestimated cat abundance by 7 ± 37 SD%. Caretakers' feral cat sterilization and feeding programs appear to provide a service to the university community. Key management recommendations were to increase sterilization to 90% to reduce the population over the long term and to raise funds to support the costs incurred by voluntary cat caretakers.     

Earliest “Domestic” Cats in China Identified as Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis)

The ancestor of all modern domestic cats is the wildcat, Felis silvestris lybica, with archaeological evidence indicating it was domesticated as early as 10,000 years ago in South-West Asia. A recent study, however, claims that cat domestication also occurred in China some 5,000 years ago and involved the same wildcat ancestor (F. silvestris). The application of geometric morphometric analyses to ancient small felid bones from China dating between 5,500 to 4,900 BP, instead reveal these and other remains to be that of the leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis). These data clearly indicate that the origins of a human-cat ‘domestic’ relationship in Neolithic China began independently from South-West Asia and involved a different wild felid species altogether. The leopard cat’s ‘domestic’ status, however, appears to have been short-lived—its apparent subsequent replacement shown by the fact that today all domestic cats in China are genetically related to F. silvestris.     

Maternal-Neonatal Pheromone/Interomone Added to Cat Litter Improves Litter Box Use and Reduces Aggression in Pair-Housed Cats

Introducing a new cat into a household with one or more resident cats can be a significant source of stress for the cats involved. These studies sought to determine if rabbit maternal-neonatal pheromone (2-methyl-2-butenal [2M2B]) in litter impacted cat social behaviors and litter box use. Study 1 determined that cats preferred to eliminate in litter containing 2M2B; other semiochemicals tested did not change litter box use. Cats prone to aggression were identified in an intermediate pilot study, and eight pairs of these cats were selected for Study 2. In Study 2, cat pairs were provided litter containing either vehicle or 2M2B for 24 hours. Cats experiencing control litter displayed more aggression during the first 6 hours (p < .01) and spent more time using the litter box 12 hours and 18 hours after pairing compared with cats experiencing litter with 2M2B (p = .02). These results suggest 2M2B-infused cat litter may act as an interomone in cats housed domestically to prevent initial occurrences of aggression and may improve cat welfare in multicat households.     

Relationships Between Conditioned and Orienting Responses

This article represents one in a long line of investigations by Feyenberg and his colleagues concerning the defining characteristics and functional characteristics of the orienting response. The present formulation differs from those of previous writers in placing orienting and conditioned reflexes on a single continuum. (For a more traditional formulation, see Y. N. Sokolov, Perception and the conditioned reflex. London: Pergamon, 1964.)     

From Cats and Blackcurrants: Structure and Dynamics of the Sulfur‐Containing Cassis Odorant Cat Ketone

Sulfur‐containing odorants and flavors play an important role in flavor and food industry, especially when meaty, garlic, onion, and vegetable scents are needed. Still, many S‐containing flavors also possess fruity scents and may be used in compositions of perfumes that require a fresh and fruity odor perception. They are naturally abundant in various fruits, essential oils, and food. Most of these compounds possess strong scents, and their scent composition is highly dependent on the concentration applied. At higher concentrations, they usually feature repellent off‐odors, while their sweet and fruity nature is only experienced at very low concentrations. This represents a challenge for their application in perfumery, as well as in food industry. From a molecular point of view, the endless structural and scent variety of these compounds makes them fascinating, especially as their O‐analogs are usually free of any malodors. Here, we report on the investigation of the gas‐phase structure and dynamics of the S‐containing blackcurrant odorant cat ketone (4‐methyl‐4‐sulfanylpentan‐2‐one). The work was performed by combining quantum‐chemical calculations and molecular‐beam Fourier‐transform microwave spectroscopy as complementary tools. Using this technique, we are able to determine the structures of sizeable molecules where energy differences are small and conformational distinction is not always possible by quantum‐chemical calculations alone. The presented results can be used for further structure? activity correlation studies, as well as for benchmarks to improve theoretical models, especially, as there is still significant interest in characterizing the various conformers of organic molecules in terms of relative energies, structures, and dipole moments.     

The Relationship Between Coat Color and Aggressive Behaviors in the Domestic Cat

The authors explored a possible relationship between coat color and aggressive behaviors in the domestic cat. This study used an Internet-based survey to collect information on coat color, affiliative behaviors toward cats/humans, agonistic behaviors toward cats/humans, other “problem” behaviors, and cat and guardian demographic data. A total of 1,432 cat guardians completed the online survey; after exclusions based on study protocol, data analysis included 1,274 completed surveys. Guardians reported sex-linked orange female (tortoiseshells, calicos, and “torbies”), black-and-white, and gray-and-white cats to be more frequently aggressive toward humans in 3 settings: during everyday interactions, during handling, and during veterinary visits. Kruskal-Wallis 1-way analysis of variance was used to compare possible differences between the 2 sexes and among different coat colors. Analyses of aggression due to handling, as well as aggression displayed during veterinarian visits, showed little difference among coat colors in these settings.     

Comparison of Neural Responses to Cat Meows and Human Vowels in the Anterior and Posterior Auditory Field of Awake Cats

For humans and animals, the ability to discriminate speech and conspecific vocalizations is an important physiological assignment of the auditory system. To reveal the underlying neural mechanism, many electrophysiological studies have investigated the neural responses of the auditory cortex to conspecific vocalizations in monkeys. The data suggest that vocalizations may be hierarchically processed along an anterior/ventral stream from the primary auditory cortex (A1) to the ventral prefrontal cortex. To date, the organization of vocalization processing has not been well investigated in the auditory cortex of other mammals. In this study, we examined the spike activities of single neurons in two early auditory cortical regions with different anteroposterior locations: anterior auditory field (AAF) and posterior auditory field (PAF) in awake cats, as the animals were passively listening to forward and backward conspecific calls (meows) and human vowels. We found that the neural response patterns in PAF were more complex and had longer latency than those in AAF. The selectivity for different vocalizations based on the mean firing rate was low in both AAF and PAF, and not significantly different between them; however, more vocalization information was transmitted when the temporal response profiles were considered, and the maximum transmitted information by PAF neurons was higher than that by AAF neurons. Discrimination accuracy based on the activities of an ensemble of PAF neurons was also better than that of AAF neurons. Our results suggest that AAF and PAF are similar with regard to which vocalizations they represent but differ in the way they represent these vocalizations, and there may be a complex processing stream between them.