Plants as Sources of Airborne Bacteria, Including Ice Nucleation-Active Bacteria

Vertical wind shear and concentration gradients of viable, airborne bacteria were used to calculate the upward flux of viable cells above bare soil and canopies of several crops. Concentrations at soil or canopy height varied from 46 colony-forming units per m³ over young corn and wet soil to 663 colony-forming units per m³ over dry soil and 6,500 colony-forming units per m³ over a closed wheat canopy. In simultaneous samples, concentrations of viable bacteria in the air 10 m inside an alfalfa field were fourfold higher than those over a field with dry, bare soil immediately upwind. The upward flux of viable bacteria over alfalfa was three- to fourfold greater than over dry soil. Concentrations of ice nucleation-active bacteria were higher over plants than over soil. Thus, plant canopies may constitute a major source of bacteria, including ice nucleation-active bacteria, in the air.     

Glasshouse experiments on apple scab I. Foliage infection in relation to wet and dry periods

A technique of investigating apple scab infection periods using MM 109 rootstocks in the glasshouse is fully described. Inoculation by ascospores in aqueous suspension was less reliable than that by sedimenting the spores direct from source leaves on to the host plants, but fresh conidia in aqueous suspension consistently gave high levels of infection under optimum conditions.
Ascospores required a shorter period of continuous wetness (6 hr.) than conidia (7–9 hr.) for infection at near-optimum temperatures. Maximum infection from both sources was reached after about 18 hr. continuous wetness; much longer periods were sometimes inimical. With discontinuous wetness, most ascospores tolerated a dry interval of 24 hr. on the host leaves, although infection was somewhat reduced if the dry period began when the spores were starting to germinate. Conidia were more inhibited than ascospores by 24 hr. drying during minimal infection periods, but many survived and produced lesions.
Some ascospores survived dry periods of at least 96 hr., but mature leaves had acquired resistance during the interval and thus infection was reduced. The reduction was partly offset by greater infection of the youngest leaves, which meantime had expanded and were thus easier to wet. No infection resulted, however, when the dry interval was extended to 10 days.
The implications of the results are discussed in relation to the interpretation of infection periods in the field.     

基于树干液流和土壤-叶片水势梯度分析荷木干湿季整树水分利用特征

运用Granier热消散探针连续监测荷木的树干液流,于2009年的湿季(8月)和干季(11月)选择天气晴朗的3d测定叶片水势,同步连续监测林冠上方光合有效辐射、土壤含水量、气温和空气相对湿度.结果表明:干湿季下荷木树干液流存在显著差异,此外,土壤水势和液流有较好的相关性,且干季时的相关性更好;荷木的叶面积/边材面积比值平均为(0.416±0.033)m2·cm-2,并与树高呈指数函数下降关系;随着11月土壤水势下降,荷木的整树水力导度和午间叶片水势也有所下降,但不明显;对叶片水势和整树蒸腾进行回归分析,二者之间呈二次多项式关系(P＜0.01),叶片水势并非无限制下降;结果还表明,大气水汽压亏缺(D)和叶片水势呈负相关,这是否空气温度和相对湿度或共同作用影响叶片水势,需要进一步研究.     

Transpiration of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cyclobalanopsis glauca</Emphasis> (syn. <Emphasis Type="Italic">Quercus glauca</Emphasis>) stand measured by sap-flow method in a karst rocky terrain during dry season

Seasonal drought may have a high impact on the karst ecosystem. The transpiration from Cyclobalanopsis glauca (syn. Quercus glauca) stand on a rocky hilly slope in South China was measured during the dry period of 2006 by using the Granier’s sap-flow method. During the experimental period, maximum sap flux density (J _s) ranged from 20 to 40 g H₂O m⁻² s⁻¹ according to diameter of breast height (DBH) of individual trees. On sunny days, daily transpiration varied between 3.4 and 1.8 mm day⁻¹. Transpiration of C. glauca was closely correlated to the radiation, air temperature, and vapor pressure deficit (VPD). Soil moisture was a very important factor influencing transpiration. The very low soil water content might result in low stand transpiration even when VPD is high, but high soil water content might also result in low transpiration if it was low VPD. However, VPD rather than soil moisture, affected largely the stand transpiration under high soil water content. The amount of transpiration was much more than that of the total soil moisture loss during the continuous sunny days, indicating that the dry shallow soils were probably not the only source for root-uptake water. C. glauca grows deep roots through the rock fissures of epikarst, indicating that epikarst might be another main source for sustaining transpiration in response to dry demand in autumn. Therefore, a large amount of deep roots of karst species would be a very important hydraulic connecting from the epikarst to above ground by transpiration, which would promote the biogeochemical process in a karst system.     

Shifts in controls on the temporal coherence of throughfall chemical flux in Acadia National Park, Maine, USA

Major ion and mercury (Hg) inputs to terrestrial ecosystems include both wet and dry deposition (total deposition). Estimating total deposition to sensitive receptor sites is hampered by limited information regarding its spatial heterogeneity and seasonality. We used measurements of throughfall flux, which includes atmospheric inputs to forests and the net effects of canopy leaching or uptake, for ten major ions and Hg collected during 35 time periods in 1999–2005 at over 70 sites within Acadia National Park, Maine to (1) quantify coherence in temporal dynamics of seasonal throughfall deposition and (2) examine controls on these patterns at multiple scales. We quantified temporal coherence as the correlation between all possible site pairs for each solute on a seasonal basis. In the summer growing season and autumn, coherence among pairs of sites with similar vegetation was stronger than for site-pairs that differed in vegetation suggesting that interaction with the canopy and leaching of solutes differed in coniferous, deciduous, mixed, and shrub or open canopy sites. The spatial pattern in throughfall hydrologic inputs across Acadia National Park was more variable during the winter snow season, suggesting that snow re-distribution affects net hydrologic input, which consequently affects chemical flux. Sea-salt corrected calcium concentrations identified a shift in air mass sources from maritime in winter to the continental industrial corridor in summer. Our results suggest that the spatial pattern of throughfall hydrologic flux, dominant seasonal air mass source, and relationship with vegetation in winter differ from the spatial pattern of throughfall flux in these solutes in summer and autumn. The coherence approach applied here made clear the strong influence of spatial heterogeneity in throughfall hydrologic inputs and a maritime air mass source on winter patterns of throughfall flux. By contrast, vegetation type was the most important influence on throughfall chemical flux in summer and autumn.     

Evaluation of diel patterns of relative changes in cell turgor of tomato plants using leaf patch clamp pressure probes

Relative changes in cell turgor of leaves of well‐watered tomato plants were evaluated using the leaf patch clamp pressure probe (LPCP) under dynamic greenhouse climate conditions. LPCP changes, a measure for relative changes in cell turgor, were monitored at three different heights of transpiring and non‐transpiring leaves of tomato plants on sunny and cloudy days simultaneously with whole plant water uptake. Clear diel patterns were observed for relative changes of cell turgor of both transpiring and non‐transpiring leaves, which were stronger on sunny days than on cloudy days. A clear effect of canopy height was also observed. Non‐transpiring leaves showed relative changes in cell turgor that closely followed plant water uptake throughout the day. However, in the afternoon the relative changes of cell turgor of the transpiring leaves displayed a delayed response in comparison to plant water uptake. Subsequent recovery of cell turgor loss of transpiring leaves during the following night appeared insufficient, as the pre‐dawn turgescent state similar to the previous night was not attained.     

不同光强下单叶蔓荆的光合蒸腾与离子累积的关系

同步分析了生长在滨海滩涂沙地的灌木单叶蔓荆钠和钾离子的累积量与植物的水分累积消耗量与光合产物累积量的日变化特点和累积的关系,并比较了单叶蔓荆在晴天和阴天的木质部溶液离子浓度与植物水势的关系和水分利用效率的差别,结果表明:单叶蔓荆在光强度较高的晴天的水分利用效率高于阴天,在晴天的光合产物累积达到了阴天的约4倍,却只消耗了约为阴天3倍的水。随着植物体水势的降低,单叶蔓荆木质部溶液的钠离子的浓度和钾离子浓度呈降低趋势但不明显。木质部溶液的钾离子浓度和钾离子累积量无论在晴天和阴天都明显低于钠离子的浓度和累积量。单叶蔓荆的高浓度的钠离子吸收有可能在液泡累积并降低细胞的渗透势,增加细胞的吸水能力和植物的抗旱抗盐能力。     

红松阔叶混交林林隙光量子通量密度、气温和空气相对湿度的时空分布格局

以小兴安岭原始红松阔叶混交林林隙为研究对象,通过对林隙内光量子通量密度(PPFD)、气温和空气相对湿度进行连续观测,比较其间的时空分布格局.结果表明：晴天和阴天阔叶红松林林隙的PPFD日最大值均出现在11:00—13:00,晴天林隙内各个时段最大值出现位置不同,日最大值出现在林隙北侧林冠边缘处;而阴天各个时段最大值均处于林隙的中心.林隙内月平均PPFD 为6月最高、9月最低,极差7月最大.林隙内晴天气温的峰值出现在9:00—15:00,而阴天气温峰值在15：00—19：00,均位于林隙中心南8 m.5:00—9:00林隙各点阴天的气温都高于晴天,9:00—19:00则相反.月平均气温为6月最高、9月最低.晴天和阴天空气相对湿度的峰值均出现在5:00—9:00,日最大值在林隙西侧林冠边缘处,且阴天的相对湿度始终大于晴天.月平均相对湿度为7月最高、6月最低.晴天PPFD的异质性大于阴天,而气温和相对湿度的异质性则不明显.生长季内不同月份PPFD、气温和空气相对湿度的最大值所处位置不同.PPFD和气温的月均值在林隙中心及附近变化梯度较大,而相对湿度的月均值则在林隙边缘变化梯度较大.     

Soft Rot Erwinia Bacteria in the Atmospheric Bacterial Aerosol

Using a Casella High Volume Airborne Bacteria Sampler, the soft rot coliform bacteria Erwinia carotovora var. carotovora and E. carotovora var. atroseptica were caught from the open air during rainfall in mid to late summer, autumn and early winter, but not in late winter, spring or early summer. They were not found every time it rained, and never when the weather was dry. The bacteria were caught close to potato crops, but there were several occasions when they were found at sites where there were no such crops or at times of year after potato crops had been harvested. The sources of the organisms are uncertain, but those obtained close to potato crops may have originated there. The results are considered to provide further evidence that airborne spread and subsequent deposition of viable bacteria could cause contamination of Erwinia -free potato stocks, and suggest that rainfall is a major generator of the general atmospheric bacterial aerosol.     

The importance of bacterivorous protists in the decomposition of stream leaf litter

1. Allochthonous organic matter, in the form of senesced leaves, is a major source of carbon supporting detrital food webs. While studies have documented the role of bacteria and fungi in the decomposition of leaf litter, little information is available regarding the role of protists in the decomposition process. 2. We tested the hypothesis that the presence of stream‐dwelling bacterivorous protists leads to an increased rate of leaf decomposition through grazing pressure on bacteria. We isolated live protists from decomposing leaves collected in a stream in Northern Virginia, U.S.A. (Goose Creek) and established laboratory cultures of common bacterivorous protists. 3. Recently senesced leaves from the field were used in laboratory microcosm experiments to determine if the rate of litter decomposition differed between four treatments: bacteria only, bacteria + flagellates, bacteria + flagellates + ciliates, autoclaved stream water (control). We determined the dry weight of leaf remaining, bacterial abundance, flagellate abundance and ciliate abundance for each replicate on days 0, 7, 14, 30, 60 and 120. 4. The rate of leaf decomposition was significantly higher in treatments with protists than without and bacterial abundance declined in protist treatments compared with bacteria only treatment. Weight loss in the presence of flagellates was three to four times higher when protists were present compared with treatments with bacteria alone. These results provide experimental evidence that protists could play a significant role in the detrital processes of streams.     

Physiology of maize I: A comprehensive and integrated view of nitrogen metabolism in a C4 plant

Maize ( Zea mays L., line F2) plants were grown in the field under high or low fertilization input to monitor the metabolic, biochemical and molecular events occurring in young vegetative leaves and in the different leaf stages along the main axis in plants harvested 15 days after silking. This study shows that in maize which possess large sinks represented by the seeds, nitrogen (N) management is different compared with tobacco in which sink strength is much lower and mostly limited to young developing leaves. Although in young leaves nitrate assimilation predominates in both species, ammonium assimilation exhibits some species-specific differences with respect to inorganic and organic N metabolite accumulation during leaf ageing. These differences are likely to be related to the high sink strength of the ear in maize, which continuously imports carbon and N assimilates during grain filling. Consequently, a number of cytosolic glutamine synthetase isoenzymes are expressed during leaf ageing to maintain a constant flux of reduced N necessary for the synthesis of organic N molecules used either for leaf protein synthesis or directly translocated to the grain. This situation contrasts with that found in tobacco for which leaf ammonium assimilation in the plastids is shifted to the cytosol during the transition from sink leaves to source leaves. These species-specific differences for N assimilation and recycling are discussed in relation to the evolution of leaf photosynthetic activity and leaf senescence, which both seem to be largely dependent on the different sink strength in each species.     

Metabolic flux analysis of Gluconacetobacter xylinus for bacterial cellulose production

Metabolic flux analysis was used to reveal the metabolic distributions in Gluconacetobacter xylinus (CGMCC no. 2955) cultured on different carbon sources. Compared with other sources, glucose, fructose, and glycerol could achieve much higher bacterial cellulose (BC) yields from G. xylinus (CGMCC no. 2955). The glycerol led to the highest BC production with a metabolic yield of 14.7 g/mol C, which was approximately 1.69-fold and 2.38-fold greater than that produced using fructose and glucose medium, respectively. The highest BC productivity from G. xylinus CGMCC 2955 was 5.97 g BC/L (dry weight) when using glycerol as the sole carbon source. Metabolic flux analysis for the central carbon metabolism revealed that about 47.96 % of glycerol was transformed into BC, while only 19.05 % of glucose and 24.78 % of fructose were transformed into BC. Instead, when glucose was used as the sole carbon source, 40.03 % of glucose was turned into the by-product gluconic acid. Compared with BC from glucose and fructose, BC from the glycerol medium showed the highest tensile strength at 83.5 MPa, with thinner fibers and lower porosity. As a main byproduct of biodiesel production, glycerol holds great potential to produce BC with superior mechanical and microstructural characteristics.     

Factors affecting aphid acquisition and transmission of soybean mosaic virus

Myzus persicae transmitted soybean mosaic virus (SMV) most efficiently following 30 or 60 s acquisition probes on infected plants. There were no differences in susceptibility to SMV infection of soybean plants 1 to 12 wk old, but symptoms were more severe in plants inoculated when young than when old. Soybeans inoculated between developmental stages R3 and R6 only showed yellowish-brown blotching on one or more leaves. There were no observable differences in the time of appearance or type of symptoms shown by soybean seedlings inoculated either by sap or by aphids; infected plants became acquisition hosts for aphids 5–6 days after inoculation. There was no change in the efficiency with which M. persicae transmitted SMV from source plants up to 18 wk after inoculation. M. persicae transmitted SMV from leaves of field-grown soybeans when plants were inoculated at developmental stages V6, R2, and R3 and tested as sources 57–74 days after inoculation but not from plants inoculated at R5 and tested as sources 14 to 32 days after inoculation. M. persicae acquired SMV from soybean buds, flowers, green bean pods, and unifoliolate, trifoliolate, and senescent leaves. Middle-aged and deformed leaves were better sources of the virus than buds, unfolding and old symptomless leaves. The results are being incorporated into a computer model of SMV epidemiology.     

Dispersal of conidia of Dothidella ulei from Hevea brasiliensis

South American leaf blight caused by Dothidella ulei occurs only in tropical America, on both indigenous and cultivated Hevea spp. The conidium (Fusicladium macrosporum) is a 1-septate, dry, air-borne spore about 40 × 7 μ, occurring on the abaxial surface of dry leaves in dense, powdery, olive-green masses, and with one or both cells collapsed. The conidia adhere to the surface of water droplets, becoming turgid, and are disseminated in splash droplets. A Hirst volumetric trap, placed within a prepared source in north-west Trinidad, showed a diurnal periodicity of conidial production, with a maximum at 10.00 h and minima at night or in the early morning. On rainless days there was also a minor peak at 20.00 h. Transient increases occurred after rain, most of which fell around noon. On wet days almost equal numbers of conidia were dispersed between 10.00 and 12.00 h. Large increases occurred in 87% of all rain showers between 09.00 and 13.00 h. After 13.00 h fewer rain showers caused such increases; the lowest (36%) was between 21.00 and 01.00 h. Twice as many were trapped on sunny days (> 9 h sun) at 09.00 h when there was full sunshine, compared with overcast days (< 5 h sun). A more clearly defined morning maximum occurred on relatively windy days, compared with calmer ones. Conidial sporulation became very low, or ceased, where rain fell below a mean of 3–4 mm per day for at least 20 days. Abundant sporulation occurred with a daily rainfall about twice this amount. The results support the belief that if Dothidella ulei appeared in Malaysia its spread would be rapid and its effects damaging.     

Effect of phenological development on radiophosphorus translocation from leaves in crested wheatgrass

Summary The effect of phenological development on the pattern of photosynthate translocation was studied in crested wheatgrass [Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.] plants grown in a nursery under semi-natural environmental conditions at Logan, Utah. Radiophosphorus was used to trace the photosynthate translocation from April 13, 1968, through December 2, 1968.In early spring photosynthates were translocated about equally to the roots and younger leaves. Translocation was chiefly upward during the flower stage but was reversed with raturation of the inflorescence. In late summer the plants appeared quiescent but substantial ³²P was transported to the underground portions of the plant. After quiescence was broken in the fall, shoot and root growth were resumed simultaneously with peak ³²P movement to the crown and roots.The concentration of total available carbohydrates in the roots and crowns reached a maximum level just prior to quiescence and decreased during shoot production in the fall. Presumably, the carbohydrates were used in growth and the accumulation of carbohydrates for the winter is apparently not critical in crested wheatgrass. Since the plants have many basal leaves throughout the winter, they may have the capacity to carry out photosynthesis on warm, sunny winter days and are capable of immediately initiating growth in the spring.Utah Agricultural Experiment Station Paper 1074.     

低丘红壤区农田水热通量变化特征及气候学足迹

农田水热通量的变化特征以及气候学足迹分析对加强区域气候资源管理和提高红壤地区水热资源利用率有重要意义.利用低丘红壤区的大孔径闪烁仪和自动气象站数据,在保证数据质量的基础上,详细分析了低丘红壤区农田在非雨季、作物生长旺期不同时间尺度水热通量的变化特征和观测通量的源区分布特征.结果表明: 水热通量的日变化呈单峰型,但与晴天相比较,多云天的日变化曲线波动更为复杂;无论是旬尺度还是月尺度, 8月的水热通量整体上都大于9月,且净辐射通量都更多地用于潜热交换,但9月潜热通量所占净辐射比例相较于8月有所减少,感热通量则相反;受气象条件(尤其是风)、稳定度和下垫面状况影响,不同时间尺度的观测通量源区特征不同;结合下垫面作物来看,不同时间尺度源区的通量贡献来源也不同.     

The Effect of an Incandescent Supplement on the Growth of Tomato Plants in Low Light

Young tomato plants were grown at low light flux densities (21W m^-2 for 8 h days) in growth cabinets under three types offluorescent lamps or under a fluorescent/incandescent mixedsource. Whilst net assimilation rates under the fluorescentlamps were in agreement with those calculated from the lampcharacteristics and the photosynthetic action spectrum, therate under the mixed source was about 20 per cent higher thanexpected. Relative growth rates and relative leaf area growthrates were also higher and leaf area ratios lower under thefluorescent/incandescent lamp combination than under the purefluorescent sources. Small differences in stem elongation, leaftemperature and dry weight distribution which were associatedwith the addition of incandescent radiation were not consideredto be responsible for these increases. When the light flux densityfrom the mixed source was reduced by 20 per cent, the plantgrowth parameters were then similar to those in fluorescentlight alone.     

Roads as nitrogen deposition hot spots

Mobile sources are the single largest source of nitrogen emissions to the atmosphere in the US. It is likely that a portion of mobile-source emissions are deposited adjacent to roads and thus not measured by traditional monitoring networks, which were designed to measure long-term and regional trends in deposition well away from emission sources. To estimate the magnitude of near-source nitrogen deposition, we measured concentrations of both dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and total dissolved nitrogen (inorganic + organic) (TDN) in throughfall (i.e., the nitrogen that comes through the forest canopy) along transects perpendicular to two moderately trafficked roads on Cape Cod in Falmouth MA, coupled with measurements of both DIN and TDN in bulk precipitation made in adjacent open fields at the same transect distances. We used the TDN throughfall data to estimate total nitrogen deposition, including dry gaseous nitrogen deposition in addition to wet deposition and dry particle deposition. There was no difference in TDN in the bulk collectors along the transects at either site; however TDN in the throughfall collectors was always higher closest to the road and decreased with distance. These patterns were driven primarily by differences in the inorganic N and not the organic N. Annual throughfall deposition was 8.7 (±0.4) and 6.8 (±0.5) TDN kg N ha^?1 year^?1 at sites 10 and 150 m away from the road respectively. We also characterized throughfall away from a non-road edge (power line right-of-way) to test whether the increased deposition observed near road edges was due to deposition near emission sources or due to a physical, edge effect causing higher deposition. The increased deposition we observed near roads was due to increases in inorganic N especially NH₄ ⁺. This increased deposition was not the result of an edge effect; rather it is due to near source deposition of mobile source emissions. We scaled these results to the entire watershed and estimate that by not taking into account the effects of increased gaseous N deposition from mobile sources we are underestimating the amount of N deposition to the watershed by 13–25 %.     

阴晴天条件下高CO_2浓度对杂交稻光合作用影响的FACE研究

光和二氧化碳(CO_2)是绿色植物光合作用的两个基本条件.为了明确不同光照条件下,高CO_2浓度对不同杂交水稻光合特性的影响,2017年利用稻田大型FACE平台,以‘Y两优900’和‘甬优538’为供试材料,设置环境CO_2和高CO_2浓度(增200μmol·mol^-1)两个水平,分别在拔节期和灌浆期同时测定阴、晴天气条件下顶部全展叶光合特性参数.结果表明:高CO_2浓度使不同天气情况下两品种叶片的净同化率(P_n)均呈增加趋势,其中晴天条件下的增幅(31%)大于阴天(25%),拔节期的增幅(37%)大于灌浆期(21%),CO_2与天气、CO_2与生育期均存在显著的互作效应.叶片水分利用效率(WUE)对高CO_2浓度的响应趋势与P_n一致.高CO_2浓度环境下叶片气孔导度(g_s)、蒸腾速率(T_r)均呈下降趋势,晴天条件下的降幅略大于阴天.与晴天相比,阴天条件下叶片P_n、g_s、T_r、WUE和L_s平均分别下降41%、18%、41%、26%和27%,差异均达显著或极显著水平.相关分析表明,晴天P_n、g_s、T_r均与阴天时的参数呈极显著正相关关系.表明阴天使水稻生育中、后期叶片光合参数及其对高CO_2浓度的响应均大幅降低,且两品种表现一致.评估未来水稻产量潜力需要考虑天气条件.     

阴晴天条件下高CO2浓度对杂交稻光合作用影响的FACE研究

光和二氧化碳(CO₂)是绿色植物光合作用的两个基本条件.为了明确不同光照条件下,高CO₂浓度对不同杂交水稻光合特性的影响,2017年利用稻田大型FACE平台,以‘Y两优900’和‘甬优538’为供试材料,设置环境CO₂和高CO₂浓度(增200 μmol·mol^-1)两个水平,分别在拔节期和灌浆期同时测定阴、晴天气条件下顶部全展叶光合特性参数.结果表明: 高CO₂浓度使不同天气情况下两品种叶片的净同化率(P_n)均呈增加趋势,其中晴天条件下的增幅(31%)大于阴天(25%),拔节期的增幅(37%)大于灌浆期(21%),CO₂与天气、CO₂与生育期均存在显著的互作效应.叶片水分利用效率(WUE)对高CO₂浓度的响应趋势与P_n一致.高CO₂浓度环境下叶片气孔导度(g_s)、蒸腾速率(T_r)均呈下降趋势,晴天条件下的降幅略大于阴天.与晴天相比,阴天条件下叶片P_n、g_s、T_r、WUE和L_s平均分别下降41%、18%、41%、26%和27%,差异均达显著或极显著水平.相关分析表明,晴天P_n、g_s、T_r均与阴天时的参数呈极显著正相关关系.表明阴天使水稻生育中、后期叶片光合参数及其对高CO₂浓度的响应均大幅降低,且两品种表现一致.评估未来水稻产量潜力需要考虑天气条件.