An Alternatively Spliced Isoform of Non-muscle Myosin II-C Is Not Regulated by Myosin Light Chain Phosphorylation

We report a novel isoform of non-muscle myosin II-C (NM II-C), NM II-C2, that is generated by alternative splicing of an exon, C2, encoding 41 amino acids in mice (33 in humans). The 41 amino acids are inserted into loop 2 of the NM II-C heavy chain within the actin binding region. Unlike most vertebrate non-muscle and smooth muscle myosin IIs, baculovirus-expressed mouse heavy meromyosin (HMM) II-C2 demonstrates no requirement for regulatory myosin light chain (MLC₂₀) phosphorylation for maximum actin-activated MgATPase activity or maximum in vitro motility as measured by the sliding actin filament assay. In contrast, noninserted HMM II-C0 and another alternatively spliced isoform HMM II-C1, which contains 8 amino acids inserted into loop 1, are dependent on MLC₂₀ phosphorylation for both actin-activated MgATPase activity and in vitro motility (Kim, K. Y., Kovacs, M., Kawamoto, S., Sellers, J. R., and Adelstein, R. S. (2005) J. Biol. Chem. 280,22769 -22775). HMM II-C1C2, which contains both the C1 and C2 inserts, does not require MLC₂₀ phosphorylation for full activity similar to HMM II-C2. These constitutively active C2-inserted isoforms of NM II-C are expressed only in neuronal tissue. This is in contrast to NM II-C1 and NM II-C0, both of which are ubiquitously expressed. Full-length NM II-C2-GFP expressed in COS-7 cells localizes to filaments in interphase cells and to the cytokinetic ring in dividing cells.Mammalian non-muscle myosin IIs (NM IIs)² belong to the conventional Class II myosins and are hexameric proteins composed of two heavy chains and two pairs of light chains, referred as the 20-kDa regulatory myosin light chain (MLC₂₀) and the 17-kDa essential myosin light chain (MLC₁₇). These myosins self-associate through their tail regions to form bipolar filaments that pull on actin filaments to produce force to drive important cellular functions such as cytokinesis, cell polarity, and cell migration (1-4). Three isoforms of the non-muscle myosin heavy chain (NMHC), II-A, II-B, and II-C, have been identified in vertebrates. They are products of three different genes, MYH9 (5, 6), MYH10 (6), and MYH14 (7, 8), respectively, in humans. It is well established that the enzymatic activity of these myosins is regulated by phosphorylation of MLC₂₀, which is catalyzed by a number of enzymes, including myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), and Rho kinase (9-14).Alternative splicing of pre-mRNA of NMHC II genes generates multiple mRNAs to enhance protein diversity in the NM II family. Work from this laboratory and others (8, 15-18) has established that both NMHC II-B and II-C undergo alternative splicing to generate several isoforms. In the case of NMHC II-B, 10 amino acids are incorporated into loop 1 at amino acid 212 (NMHC II-B1), and 21 amino acids are inserted into loop 2 at amino acid 622 (NMHC II-B2; see Ref. 15). These isoforms have been expressed as proteins, and their biochemical and functional importance has been studied extensively (19-22). Recently, it has been reported that baculovirus-expressed heavy meromyosin (HMM) II-B2 lacks actin-activated MgATPase activity and cannot propel actin filaments in an in vitro motility assay following MLC₂₀ phosphorylation (22) even though HMM II-B0 and II-B1 show normal phosphorylation-dependent activities (21). These two inserted isoforms (NM II-B1 and NM II-B2) are only expressed in neuronal tissues, and the results of ablating each of them and NM II-B in mice have been reported (23-25).For NMHC II-C, an alternative exon encoding 8 amino acids is incorporated into loop 1 at amino acid 227 (NMHC II-C1) at a location homologous to that of the B1 insert. Unlike NMHC II-B1, which is only expressed in neuronal tissue, NMHC II-C1 is found in a variety of tissues such as liver, kidney, testes, brain, and lung (8). The presence of the C1 insert in baculovirus-expressed HMM II-C1 increases both the actin-activated MgATPase activity and in vitro motility of HMM II-C1 compared with HMM II-C0, the noninserted form. The activity of both HMM II-C0 and HMM II-C1 is dependent on MLC₂₀ phosphorylation (26). NM II-C1 has been shown to be expressed in a number of tumor cell lines, and decreasing its expression using small interfering RNA delays a late step in cytokinesis in the lung tumor cell line A549 (27).In this study, we report that an exon encoding 41 amino acids can be incorporated into loop 2 near the actin binding region at amino acid 636 of NMHC II-C in mice. Expression of NM II-C2 is limited to neural tissue in mice. We used the baculovirus system to express all four isoforms of HMM II-C and found that inclusion of the 41 amino acids in loop 2 results in an HMM with an actin-activated MgATPase activity and in vitro motility that are independent of MLC₂₀ phosphorylation.     

Functional Differences in Ionic Regulation between Alternatively Spliced Isoforms of the Na+-Ca2+ Exchanger from Drosophila melanogaster

Ion transport and regulation were studied in two, alternatively spliced isoforms of the Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchanger from Drosophila melanogaster. These exchangers, designated CALX1.1 and CALX1.2, differ by five amino acids in a region where alternative splicing also occurs in the mammalian Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchanger, NCX1. The CALX isoforms were expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes and characterized electrophysiologically using the giant, excised patch clamp technique. Outward Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchange currents, where pipette Ca²⁺_o exchanges for bath Na⁺_i, were examined in all cases. Although the isoforms exhibited similar transport properties with respect to their Na⁺_i affinities and current–voltage relationships, significant differences were observed in their Na⁺_i- and Ca²⁺_i-dependent regulatory properties. Both isoforms underwent Na⁺_i-dependent inactivation, apparent as a time-dependent decrease in outward exchange current upon Na⁺_i application. We observed a two- to threefold difference in recovery rates from this inactive state and the extent of Na⁺_i-dependent inactivation was approximately twofold greater for CALX1.2 as compared with CALX1.1. Both isoforms showed regulation of Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchange activity by Ca²⁺_i, but their responses to regulatory Ca²⁺_i differed markedly. For both isoforms, the application of cytoplasmic Ca²⁺_i led to a decrease in outward exchange currents. This negative regulation by Ca²⁺_i is unique to Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchangers from Drosophila, and contrasts to the positive regulation produced by cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ for all other characterized Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchangers. For CALX1.1, Ca²⁺_i inhibited peak and steady state currents almost equally, with the extent of inhibition being ≈80%. In comparison, the effects of regulatory Ca²⁺_i occurred with much higher affinity for CALX1.2, but the extent of these effects was greatly reduced (≈20–40% inhibition). For both exchangers, the effects of regulatory Ca²⁺_i occurred by a direct mechanism and indirectly through effects on Na⁺_i-induced inactivation. Our results show that regulatory Ca²⁺_i decreases Na⁺_i-induced inactivation of CALX1.2, whereas it stabilizes the Na⁺_i-induced inactive state of CALX1.1. These effects of Ca²⁺_i produce striking differences in regulation between CALX isoforms. Our findings indicate that alternative splicing may play a significant role in tailoring the regulatory profile of CALX isoforms and, possibly, other Na⁺-Ca²⁺ exchange proteins.     

The Two Genes Encoding Starch-Branching Enzymes IIa and IIb Are Differentially Expressed in Barley

The sbeIIa and sbeIIb genes, encoding starch-branching enzyme (SBE) IIa and SBEIIb in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), have been isolated. The 5′ portions of the two genes are strongly divergent, primarily due to the 2064-nucleotide-long intron 2 in sbeIIb. The sequence of this intron shows that it contains a retro-transposon-like element. Expression of sbeIIb but not sbeIIa was found to be endosperm specific. The temporal expression patterns for sbeIIa and sbeIIb were similar and peaked around 12 d after pollination. DNA gel-blot analysis demonstrated that sbeIIa and sbeIIb are both single-copy genes in the barley genome. By fluorescence in situ hybridization, the sbeIIa and sbeIIb genes were mapped to chromosomes 2 and 5, respectively. The cDNA clones for SBEIIa and SBEIIb were isolated and sequenced. The amino acid sequences of SBEIIa and SBEIIb were almost 80% identical. The major structural difference between the two enzymes was the presence of a 94-amino acid N-terminal extension in the SBEIIb precursor. The (β/α)₈-barrel topology of the α-amylase superfamily and the catalytic residues implicated in branching enzymes are conserved in both barley enzymes.     

LEAFY COTYLEDON1, a Key Regulator of Seed Development,Is Expressed in Vegetative and Sexual Propagules of Selaginella moellendorffii

LEAFY COTYLEDON1 (LEC1) is a central regulator of seed development that plays a key role in controlling the maturation phase during which storage macromolecules accumulate and the embryo becomes tolerant of desiccation. We queried the genomes of seedless plants and identified a LEC1 homolog in the lycophyte, Selaginella moellendorffii , but not in the bryophyte, Physcomitrella patens . Genetic suppression experiments indicated that Selaginella LEC1 is the functional ortholog of Arabidopsis LEC1. Together, these results suggest that LEC1 originated at least 30 million years before the first seed plants appeared in the fossil record. The accumulation of Selaginella LEC1 RNA primarily in sexual and asexual reproductive structures suggests its involvement in cellular processes similar to those that occur during the maturation phase of seed development.     

Annotated Differentially Expressed Salivary Proteins of Susceptible and Insecticide-Resistant Mosquitoes of Anopheles stephensi

Vector control is one of the major global strategies for control of malaria. However, the major obstacle for vector control is the development of multiple resistances to organochlorine, organophosphorus insecticides and pyrethroids that are currently being used in public health for spraying and in bednets. Salivary glands of vectors are the first target organ for human-vector contact during biting and parasite-vector contact prior to parasite development in the mosquito midguts. The salivary glands secrete anti-haemostatic, anti-inflammatory biologically active molecules to facilitate blood feeding from the host and also inadvertently inject malaria parasites into the vertebrate host. The Anopheles stephensi mosquito, an urban vector of malaria to both human and rodent species has been identified as a reference laboratory model to study mosquito—parasite interactions. In this study, we adopted a conventional proteomic approach of 2D-electrophoresis coupled with MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and bioinformatics to identify putative differentially expressed annotated functional salivary proteins between An. stephensi susceptible and multiresistant strains with same genetic background. Our results show 2D gel profile and MALDI-TOF comparisons that identified 31 differentially expressed putative modulated proteins in deltamethrin/DDT resistant strains of An. stephensi. Among these 15 proteins were found to be upregulated and 16 proteins were downregulated. Our studies interpret that An. stephensi (multiresistant) caused an upregulated expression of proteins and enzymes like cytochrome 450, short chain dehyrdogenase reductase, phosphodiesterase etc that may have an impact in insecticide resistance and xenobiotic detoxification. Our study elucidates a proteomic response of salivary glands differentially regulated proteins in response to insecticide resistance development which include structural, redox and regulatory enzymes of several pathways. These identified proteins may play a role in regulating mosquito biting behavior patterns and may have implications in the development of malaria parasites in resistant mosquitoes during parasite transmission.     

The Diageotropica Gene Differentially Affects Auxin and Cytokinin Responses throughout Development in Tomato

The interactions between the plant hormones auxin and cytokinin throughout plant development are complex, and genetic investigations of the interdependency of auxin and cytokinin signaling have been limited. We have characterized the cytokinin sensitivity of the auxin-resistant diageotropica (dgt) mutant of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) in a range of auxin- and cytokinin-regulated responses. Intact, etiolated dgt seedlings showed cross-resistance to cytokinin with respect to root elongation, but cytokinin effects on hypocotyl growth and ethylene synthesis in these seedlings were not impaired by the dgt mutation. Seven-week-old, green wild-type and dgt plants were also equally sensitive to cytokinin with respect to shoot growth and hypocotyl and internode elongation. The effects of cytokinin and the dgt mutation on these processes appeared additive. In tissue culture organ regeneration from dgt hypocotyl explants showed reduced sensitivity to auxin but normal sensitivity to cytokinin, and the effects of cytokinin and the mutation were again additive. However, although callus induction from dgt hypocotyl explants required auxin and cytokinin, dgt calli did not show the typical concentration-dependent stimulation of growth by either auxin or cytokinin observed in wild-type calli. Cross-resistance of the dgt mutant to cytokinin thus was found to be limited to a small subset of auxin- and cytokinin-regulated growth processes affected by the dgt mutation, indicating that auxin and cytokinin regulate plant growth through both shared and separate signaling pathways.     

The Echinococcus granulosus Antigen B Gene Family Comprises at Least 10 Unique Genes in Five Subclasses Which Are Differentially Expressed

Background

Antigen B (EgAgB) is a major protein produced by the metacestode cyst of Echinococcus granulosus, the causative agent of cystic hydatid disease. This protein has been shown to play an important role in modulating host immune responses, although its precise biological function still remains unknown. It is generally accepted that EgAgB is comprised of a gene family of five subfamilies which are highly polymorphic, but the actual number of genes present is unknown.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Based on published sequences for the family, we designed specific primers for each subfamily and used PCR to amplify them from genomic DNA isolated from individual mature adult worms (MAW) taken from an experimentally infected dog in China and individual larval protoscoleces (PSC) excised from a single hydatid cyst taken from an Australian kangaroo. We then used real-time PCR to measure expression of each of the genes comprising the five EgAgB subfamilies in all life-cycle stages including the oncosphere (ONC).

Conclusions/Significance

Based on sequence alignment analysis, we found that the EgAgB gene family comprises at least ten unique genes. Each of the genes was identical in both larval and adult E. granulosus isolates collected from two geographical areas (different continents). DNA alignment comparisons with EgAgB sequences deposited in GenBank databases showed that each gene in the gene family is highly conserved within E. granulosus, which contradicts previous studies claiming significant variation and polymorphism in EgAgB. Quantitative PCR analysis revealed that the genes were differentially expressed in different life-cycle stages of E. granulosus with EgAgB3 expressed predominantly in all stages. These findings are fundamental for determining the expression and the biological function of antigen B.     

神经组织特异表达CTF1转基因小鼠的建立

目的建立神经组织特异表达CTF1的转基因模型小鼠,为研究CTF1生物学功能及与老年痴呆等疾病发病机制的关系提供工具动物。方法把CTF1基因插入神经组织特异的启动子PDGF下游,构建转基因表达载体,显微注射法建立C57BL/6J CTF1转基因小鼠。PCR鉴定转基因小鼠基因型,采用Western Blot方法鉴定CTF1在脑组织中的表达,对转基因小鼠脑组织进行石蜡切片,HE染色,显微镜观察组织结构形态的改变。结果建立了2个不同表达水平的CTF1转基因小鼠品系。转入的CTF1基因在脑组织的表达水平均高于同龄对照小鼠。组织学分析显示CTF1转基因小鼠大小脑组织基本结构形态未见异常。结论成功建立了稳定遗传的神经组织特异表达CTF1转基因小鼠品系,为CTF1的生物学功能及与老年痴呆等疾病发病机制关系的研究提供了有力的模型工具。     

The dicer-like1 Homolog fuzzy tassel Is Required for the Regulation of Meristem Determinacy in the Inflorescence and Vegetative Growth in Maize

Plant architecture is determined by meristems that initiate leaves during vegetative development and flowers during reproductive development. Maize (Zea mays) inflorescences are patterned by a series of branching events, culminating in floral meristems that produce sexual organs. The maize fuzzy tassel (fzt) mutant has striking inflorescence defects with indeterminate meristems, fasciation, and alterations in sex determination. fzt plants have dramatically reduced plant height and shorter, narrower leaves with leaf polarity and phase change defects. We positionally cloned fzt and discovered that it contains a mutation in a dicer-like1 homolog, a key enzyme required for microRNA (miRNA) biogenesis. miRNAs are small noncoding RNAs that reduce target mRNA levels and are key regulators of plant development and physiology. Small RNA sequencing analysis showed that most miRNAs are moderately reduced in fzt plants and a few miRNAs are dramatically reduced. Some aspects of the fzt phenotype can be explained by reduced levels of known miRNAs, including miRNAs that influence meristem determinacy, phase change, and leaf polarity. miRNAs responsible for other aspects of the fzt phenotype are unknown and likely to be those miRNAs most severely reduced in fzt mutants. The fzt mutation provides a tool to link specific miRNAs and targets to discrete phenotypes and developmental roles.     

The Cryptochrome Gene Family in Pea Includes Two Differentially Expressed <Emphasis Type="Italic">CRY2</Emphasis> Genes

The cryptochromes are a family of blue light photoreceptors that play important roles in the control of plant development. We have characterised the cryptochrome gene family in the model legume garden pea (Pisum sativum L.). Pea contains three expressed cryptochrome genes; a single CRY1 orthologue, and two distinct CRY2 genes that we have termed CRY2a and CRY2b. Genomic southern blots indicate that there are unlikely to be more CRY genes in pea. Each of the three genes encodes a full-length CRY protein that contains all the major domains characteristic of other higher plant cryptochromes. Database searches have identified Medicago truncatula expressed sequence tags (ESTs) corresponding to all three genes, whereas only a single CRY2 is represented in EST collections from the more distantly related legumes soybean and Lotus japonicus. The proteins encoded by the pea and Medicago CRY2b genes are distinguished from other CRY2 proteins by their shorter C-terminus. Expression analyses have identified marked differences in the regulation of the three genes, with CRY2b expression in particular distinguished by high-amplitude diurnal cycling and rapid repression in seedlings transferred from darkness to blue light.