Recovery of species richness and conservation of native Atlantic forest trees in the cacao plantations of southern Bahia in Brazil

The Atlantic forests of southern Bahia in Brazil present great species richness and a high degree of endemism. A large part of these native forests were transformed into cacao plantations in an agroforestry system known locally as cabrucas, where native trees were culled and cacao was planted under the shade of remaining trees. The present study analyzed the influence of time of implantation (age) and time of abandonment of management practices on tree species diversity of cabruca plantations to evaluate the capacity for conservation and recovery of species richness of native Atlantic Forest trees in cabrucas. Phytosociological surveys were conducted in five cabrucas with different conditions of age and state of abandonment. All trees, including hemiepiphytes and excluding the cacao plants, with a minimum stem diameter of 10 cm at breast height, were surveyed within a 3-ha sampling area in each plantation. A total of 2514 individual trees belonging to 293 species and 52 families were recorded in the five cabrucas. The Shannon diversity index varied from 3.31 to 4.22 among the cabrucas and was positively correlated with the time of abandonment (r = 0.97). The new cabrucas showed the highest values of estimated total richness (Chao) and the highest proportion of late successional species than the old ones. All areas preserved a very high proportion of native forest species while the three old cabrucas showed a higher proportion of exotic species than the two new ones. Thus the exotic species seem to replace more of the native species in the long run because of management practices and local preferences. The cabrucas presented also a high capacity for the regeneration of tree species richness after abandonment. Simple alterations in management practices could improve the recruitment of late successional species in these areas. Economic incentives may be necessary for the farmers to adopt management practices to retain native species which bring no economic returns.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cabruca</Emphasis> agroforests in southern Bahia,Brazil: tree component,management practices and tree species conservation

In southern Bahia, Brazil, cabrucas are the traditional agroforests in which cacao trees are planted under thinned-out native forests. To analyze the role of cabrucas in tree species conservation, we inventoried the non-cocoa trees in 1.0 ha plots of cabruca in 16 cocoa farms and compared our results with a similar survey undertaken in the early 1960s in the same region to analyze the long term changes. We also interviewed 160 cocoa farmers to investigate their preferences for species and the main practices used in managing shade trees. The cabrucas showed high levels of tree diversity for an agroforestry system (Shannon index ranging from 2.21 to 3.52) and also high variation in structure and composition among the different farms. Forest specialist trees accounted for most species (63.9%) in the survey and were among the species most preferred by the farmers, although we found evidence that some of these trees are gradually being replaced by other species. Our results indicate that cabrucas are poor substitutes for undisturbed forests in terms of tree species richness, but their presence in human-altered landscapes is of utmost importance to the conservation of forest tree species as they increase overall heterogeneity and may serve as ecological corridors, additional habitats, and buffer zones.     

Large Mammals in an Agroforestry Mosaic in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The forest‐like characteristics of agroforestry systems create a unique opportunity to combine agricultural production with biodiversity conservation in human‐modified tropical landscapes. The cacao‐growing region in southern Bahia, Brazil, encompasses Atlantic forest remnants and large extensions of agroforests, locally known as cabrucas, and harbors several endemic large mammals. Based on the differences between cabrucas and forests, we hypothesized that: (1) non‐native and non‐arboreal mammals are more frequent, whereas exclusively arboreal and hunted mammals are less frequent in cabrucas than forests; (2) the two systems differ in mammal assemblage structure, but not in species richness; and (3) mammal assemblage structure is more variable among cabrucas than forests. We used camera‐traps to sample mammals in nine pairs of cabruca‐forest sites. The high conservation value of agroforests was supported by the presence of species of conservation concern in cabrucas, and similar species richness and composition between forests and cabrucas. Arboreal species were less frequently recorded, however, and a non‐native and a terrestrial species adapted to open environments (Cerdocyon thous) were more frequently recorded in cabrucas. Factors that may overestimate the conservation value of cabrucas are: the high proportion of total forest cover in the study landscape, the impoverishment of large mammal fauna in forest, and uncertainty about the long‐term maintenance of agroforestry systems. Our results highlight the importance of agroforests and forest remnants for providing connectivity in human‐modified tropical forest landscapes, and the importance of controlling hunting and dogs to increase the value of agroforestry mosaics.     

Contribution of cocoa plantations to the conservation of native ants (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Formicidae) with a special emphasis on the Atlantic Forest fauna of southern Bahia,Brazil

By maintaining a forest-like structure, shaded cocoa plantations contribute to the conservation of ants that usually live in the soil, leaf litter or canopy of tropical forests. Here we synthesize the available information on the diversity and community structure of ants in shaded cocoa plantations in the Atlantic forest region of Brazil, compare ant assemblages in cocoa agroforests with forests and other forms of agriculture, and discuss how these shaded plantations contribute to the conservation of the ants in the Atlantic Forest region. We also discuss ants of economical importance and of special interest, including Camponotus, Dolichoderus, Gnamptogenys, Pachycondyla, Pseudomyrmex and other litter dwelling genera. We discuss the situation of the tramp ant Wasmannia auropunctata in the Bahian cocoa-producing region where it is considered as native, and that of the two cryptobiotic genera Thaumatomyrmex and Typhlomyrmex, as well as that of proven and possible endangered army ant and Ponerini species. A total of 192 ant species from four strata were found in extensive sampling of a cocoa plantation with a relatively simple shade canopy (comprised primarily of Erythrina). Species richness in the cocoa plantations corresponded roughly to that of low diversity native forests, and species composition of cocoa plantations was most similar to native habitats (forest and mangroves) while ant composition in other agricultural habitats was most similar to that of urban areas. Although occurrences of Wasmannia auropunctata were similar in cocoa plantations and forests, abundance of Thaumatomyrmex and Typhlomyrmex, generally thought to be rare ants, was relatively high in cocoa plantations. These results, from cocoa plantations with relatively simple shade, demonstrate the importance of cocoa for ant conservation in the Atlantic forest region of Brazil. It is likely that cocoa plantations with a greater number of vegetation strata and higher tree species richness (such as traditional cabruca plantations) provide even more important habitat for ants generally and for ant species of conservation concern.     

Ferns,frogs, lizards,birds and bats in forest fragments and shade cacao plantations in two contrasting landscapes in the Atlantic forest,Brazil

The traditional shade cacao plantations (cabrucas) of southern Bahia, Brazil, are biologically rich habitats, encompassing many forest-dwelling species. However, a critical question for the conservation management of this specific region, and the highly fragmented Atlantic forest in general, is to what extent the conservation value of cabrucas relies on the presence of primary forest habitat in the landscape. We investigated the relative importance of cabrucas and forests for the conservation of five diverse biological groups (ferns, frogs, lizards, birds and bats) in two contrasting landscapes in southern Bahia, one dominated by forest with some interspersed cabrucas, and one dominated by cabrucas with interspersed forest fragments. The community structure (richness, abundance and diversity) of all biological groups differed between cabrucas and forests, although these differences varied among groups. A high number of forest species was found in the cabrucas. However, there were pronounced differences between the two landscapes with regard to the ability of cabrucas to maintain species richness. Irrespective of the biological group considered, cabrucas located in the landscape with few and small forest fragments supported impoverished assemblages compared to cabrucas located in the landscape with high forest cover. This suggests that a greater extent of native forest in the landscape positively influences the species richness of cabrucas. In the landscape with few small forest fragments interspersed into extensive areas of shade cacao plantations, the beta diversity of birds was higher than in the more forested landscape, suggesting that forest specialist species that rarely ventured into cabrucas were randomly lost from the fragments. These results stress both the importance and the vulnerability of the small forest patches remaining in landscapes dominated by shade plantations. They also point to the need to preserve sufficient areas of primary habitat even in landscapes where land use practices are generally favorable to the conservation of biodiversity.     

Habitat determinants of golden-headed lion tamarin (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) occupancy of cacao agroforests: Gloomy conservation prospects for management intensification

Organismal distributions in human-modified landscapes largely depend on the capacity of any given species to adapt to changes in habitat structure and quality. The golden-headed lion tamarin (GHLT; Leontopithecus chrysomelas) is an Endangered primate from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest whose remaining populations occupy heterogeneous landscapes consisting primarily of shade cacao (Theobroma cacao) agroforestry, locally known as cabrucas. This cash crop can coexist with high densities of native tree species and holds a significant proportion of the native fauna, but its widely extolled wildlife-friendly status is increasingly threatened by management intensification. Although this potentially threatens to reduce the distribution of GHLTs, the main determinants of tamarin's occupancy of cabrucas remain unknown, thereby limiting our ability to design and implement appropriate conservation practices. We surveyed 16 cabruca patches in southern Bahia, Brazil, and used occupancy modeling to identify the best predictors of GHLT patch occupancy. Key explanatory variables included vegetation structure, critical resources, landscape context, human disturbance, and predation pressure. We found a negative relationship between GHLT occupancy and the prevalence of jackfruit trees (Artocarpus heterophylus), which is likely associated with the low representation of other key food species for GHLTs. Conversely, cabrucas retaining large-diameter canopy trees have a higher probability of GHLT occupancy, likely because these trees provide preferred sleeping sites. Thus, key large tree resources (food and shelter) are currently the main drivers of GHLT occupancy within cabruca agroecosystems. Since both factors can be directly affected by crop management practices, intensification of cabrucas may induce significant habitat impacts on GHLT populations over much of their remaining range-wide distribution.     

Biodiversity conservation in cocoa production landscapes: an overview

Cocoa agroforests that retain a floristically diverse and structurally complex shade canopy have the potential to harbour significant levels of biodiversity, yet few studies have documented the plant and animal species occurring within these systems or within landscapes dominated by cocoa production. In this special issue, we bring together nine studies from Latin America, Africa and Asia that document the contribution of cocoa agroforestry systems to biodiversity conservation, and explore how the design, management and location of these systems within the broader landscape influence their value as habitats, resources and biological corridors. Tree diversity within the cocoa production systems is variable, depending on management, cultural differences, location and farm history, among other factors. Animal diversity is typically highest in those cocoa agroforests that have high plant diversity, structurally complex canopies, and abundant surrounding forest cover. In general, both plant and animal diversity within cocoa agroforests is greater than those of other agricultural land uses, but lower than in the original forest habitat. There are several emerging threats to biodiversity conservation within cocoa production landscapes, including the loss of remaining forest cover, the simplification of cocoa shade canopies and the conversion of cocoa agroforestry systems to other agricultural land uses with lower biodiversity value. To counter these threats and conserve biodiversity over the long-term, land management should focus on conserving native forest habitat within cocoa production landscapes, maintaining or restoring floristically diverse and structurally complex shade canopies within cocoa agroforests, and retaining other types of on-farm tree cover to enhance landscape connectivity and habitat availability.     

Shade cacao plantations (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Theobroma cacao</Emphasis>) and bat conservation in southern Bahia,Brazil

Nearly 40% of the remaining Atlantic Forest in southern Bahia state, Brazil, is a rustic agroforest of cacao (Theobroma cacao). These traditional shade plantations, locally known as ‘cabrucas’, are habitats for forest dwelling species. Here we investigated the potential role of this traditional crop as a support for bat assemblages in southern Bahia, establishing the extent to which the bat community structure found in this agricultural system is influenced by the proximity of forest tracts. We compared the bat community attributes (richness, diversity and dominance) and species-level response (capture frequency) between native forest tracts and shade cacao plantations located in two distinct landscapes, which varied in total amount of forest (patch sizes and total forested area) and in their proximity to forest tracts. The cabrucas contiguous to forest tracts showed a rich and abundant bat community, with samples showing capture rates, species richness, diversity and evenness significantly higher than those reported for forest tracts. This situation changes, however, when shade plantations are located at some distance from forest tracts ( > 1000 m). Bat communities in these isolated cabrucas are less diverse than those found in forests and nearby cabrucas, but in both cases, species usually associated with pristine habitats were found. These findings suggest that cabrucas per se are not forest surrogates, and their potential to harbor forest dwelling bat species is closely linked with the existence of nearby forest tracts that may act as a source for species populations. Therefore, the entire landscape should be considered for management, taking into account that maintenance of cabrucas together with the preservation and restoration of forest patches is probably direly needed if one wishes to conserve the bat diversity in southern Bahia for the long term.     

Indigenous Knowledge and Management of Araucaria Araucana Forest in the Chilean Andes: Implications for Native Forest Conservation

Southern Chile experienced serious deforestation during the past century and it is projected that by the year 2025 Chile will be devoid of native forests. One of the most important endemic tree species of the country and at the same time one of the most endangered ones is Araucaria araucana (Mol.) C. Koch, the monkey-puzzle tree. It grows in the Andes Mountains, homeland of the indigenous Mapuche Pewenche people who depend on this tree. This paper is based on participatory field research with a Mapuche Pewenche community in the southern Chilean Andes on their ecological knowledge, values, use and management of the Araucaria araucana forest. It attempts to reveal how indigenous people and their knowledge contribute to the sustainable management of these forests. The paper (1) illustrates the complexity of indigenous ecological knowledge of Araucaria araucana and its efficacy in native forest management, (2) explores the link between the conservation and use of biodiversity by the indigenous people, and (3) provides answers relevant to native forest management and conservation strategies ex-situ and in-situ incorporating indigenous and scientific knowledge, thus providing a contribution towards integrated natural resource management.     

Shade Tree Diversity,Cocoa Pest Damage,Yield Compensating Inputs and Farmers' Net Returns in West Africa

Cocoa agroforests can significantly support biodiversity, yet intensification of farming practices is degrading agroforestry habitats and compromising ecosystem services such as biological pest control. Effective conservation strategies depend on the type of relationship between agricultural matrix, biodiversity and ecosystem services, but to date the shape of this relationship is unknown. We linked shade index calculated from eight vegetation variables, with insect pests and beneficial insects (ants, wasps and spiders) in 20 cocoa agroforests differing in woody and herbaceous vegetation diversity. We measured herbivory and predatory rates, and quantified resulting increases in cocoa yield and net returns. We found that number of spider webs and wasp nests significantly decreased with increasing density of exotic shade tree species. Greater species richness of native shade tree species was associated with a higher number of wasp nests and spider webs while species richness of understory plants did not have a strong impact on these beneficial species. Species richness of ants, wasp nests and spider webs peaked at higher levels of plant species richness. The number of herbivore species (mirid bugs and cocoa pod borers) and the rate of herbivory on cocoa pods decreased with increasing shade index. Shade index was negatively related to yield, with yield significantly higher at shade and herb covers<50%. However, higher inputs in the cocoa farms do not necessarily result in a higher net return. In conclusion, our study shows the importance of a diverse shade canopy in reducing damage caused by cocoa pests. It also highlights the importance of conservation initiatives in tropical agroforestry landscapes.     

Early growth and nutritional response to resource competition in cocoa-shade intercropped systems

Intercropping is often promoted for effective mutualism between species, thus compensating for external inputs. However, for optimal farm design resulting in superior production and nutrition, an accurate assessment of plant inter- and intra-specific competition is required. In predominant shade tree-cocoa (Theobroma cacao) systems, inconclusive evidence remains on species interactions, limitations to resource availability and subsequent growth and nutritional response, particularly in early growth. We examined cocoa biomass and foliar nutrition as well as nutrient supply through rates of decomposition and N mineralization after 1-year growth. Our approach employed fertilization and mixed planting treatments in an additive design of cocoa in monoculture (control), under artificial shade, and intercropped under two separate shade species (Terminalia superba and Newbouldia laevis). Intercropping had no effect on cocoa biomass production in comparison to monoculture cocoa. However, artificial shading stimulated foliage and root production both with and without fertilization, suggesting strong effects of light regulation on growth in the absence of belowground competition. Nutritionally, intercropping suppressed K uptake in cocoa foliage as K concentration was reduced by 20–25%, signifying dilution of this nutrient, presumably due to interspecific competition for mobile elements. Foliar N content under N. laevis was raised, where N concentration kept up with growth under this intercropped species. Intercropping also delayed decomposition rates, suggesting slower but sustained release of available nutrients into the topsoil. Cocoa under artificial shade, both with and without fertilization, exhibited the greatest nutrient responses as compared to unfertilized monoculture cocoa, where P uptake was stimulated most (175 and 112%), followed by K (69 and 71%), and then N (54 and 42%). Intercropping with shade trees failed to increase cocoa biomass, however, nutrient uptake was sustained for N and P, suggesting low interspecific competition. When fertilizers are undesirable or unavailable, intercropping of appropriately selected shade trees will not competitively suppress early growth of cocoa but will improve light regulation and nutritional status of cocoa saplings.     

Stand-level management of plantations to improve biodiversity values

As conservation reserves expand, the likelihood that they will capture areas degraded by previous land use increases. Ecological restoration of such areas will therefore play an increasing role in biodiversity conservation. On the New South Wales North Coast, recent expansion in the conservation estate has captured over 300 softwood and hardwood plantations, many with understoreys dominated by exotic weeds. Here we present an overview of the practices we have adopted in managing flooded gum (Eucalyptus grandis) plantations infested with lantana (Lantana camara) to enhance their biodiversity value. Experiments designed to overcome barriers limiting regeneration of native forest in conjunction with measurement of soil and plant responses yielded insights into the management of former timber plantations for biodiversity. Canonical Correspondence Analysis indicated that the level of canopy retention (or logging intensity) within sites consistently explained the greatest amount of variation in plant community composition (32–38% post-treatment). Thinning and burning stimulated regeneration of native species. Retained canopy cover was proportional to the richness or abundance of native woody shrubs, understorey trees and native perennial herbs, indicating that management intensity can be varied to promote a range of conservation values. A state-and-transition model summarising purported management actions and likely outcomes for these plantations is presented. This is the first time plantations have been managed solely for biodiversity. Logging income means that plantation restoration can be cost-neutral, and the positive influence of a cover crop of trees means that plantation management may generally be manipulated to promote biodiversity conservation.     

Effects of Forest Fragmentation on Pteridophyte Diversity in a Tropical Rain Forest in Brazil

The impacts of forest fragmentation on the pteridophyte communities of the Una region of Bahia, Brazil, were investigated by comparing species richness and ensemble diversity among areas of large forest fragments (>900 ha), small forest fragments (<100 ha), and landscape matrix. We inventoried the pteridophytes below 1 m in height in interiors of small fragments, interiors of large fragments (control areas), edges of fragments, edges of continuous forest, capoeiras (initial stages of forest regeneration) and cabrucas (cocoa plantations). All ferns were collected following the plot method (plots of 120×10 m, each). Sampling units were established in the six main ecotypes of the Una region. These units were allocated within three sampling blocks of 5 per 5 km, which were chosen in order to include the largest forest patches that still remain. Results suggest that fragmentation has a negative impact on species richness at the matrix and the edges of forest remnants. A similar negative matrix end edge effect is reported for diversity of those sites measured by the α Log-series Index. However, small forest fragments have pteridophyte species richness and diversity rates similar to large ones so they should be considered of utmost importance to the conservation of forest-related species in the region.     

Two new species of Huberia (Melastomataceae: Merianieae) from Brazil

Two new Brazilian species of the genusHuberia,H. carvalhoi andH. consimilis, are described, discussed, and illustrated.Huberia carvalhoi is endemic to Bahia;H. consimilis has a wider distribution, with disjunct populations in Pernambuco, Bahia, and Rio de Janeiro. A key is provided to the three Bahia taxa with some comments on the taxonomic affinities of the two new species.     

Mixed‐species Groups of Marmosets and Tamarins Across a Gradient of Agroforestry Intensification

Polyspecific associations are commonly observed in social animals, including primates, and have been interpreted as adaptations either to improve access to resources or to provide protection against predators. Mixed‐species associations between Wied's marmosets (Callithrix kuhlii) and golden‐headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas) have been documented, and are unique among Atlantic forest primates. Both species are endemic to southern Bahia where part of the forest has been converted into cacao agroforests, which have been subjected to management intensification. Tree density and canopy connectivity decrease in more intensively managed agroforests, potentially increasing predation risk and the frequency of mixed‐species groups between these primates. Here, we test this hypothesis using a standardized, large spatial‐scale data set obtained from camera‐trapping in 30 sites across an agroforestry landscape mosaic. As expected, the frequency of mixed‐species groups increased in more intensively managed agroforests, but only relative to the total number of records of tamarins. Our results highlight that the benefits of mixed‐species groups can be asymmetrical among species and variable across the landscape. They corroborate that predation avoidance is an important advantage of mixed‐species groups in callitrichids, especially for conspicuous species living in smaller groups, such as the tamarin. Despite the importance of agroforests to conservation, our results indicate that management intensification can increase predation risk for species of conservation concern. To maintain the conservation value of agroforests, management practices should be planned to avoid any loss of canopy connectivity, taking into account the biodiversity vs. productivity trade‐off associated with shade management.     

Conservation value of timber quality versus associated non-timber quality stands for understory diversity in Nothofagus forests

Conservation strategies of forested landscapes must consider biodiversity of the included site types, i.e. timber-quality forests and associated non-timber-quality stands. The objectives were to characterize forest overstory structure in timber-quality versus associated non-timber-quality stands; and to compare their understory communities. Six forest types were sampled in Nothofagus forests of Tierra del Fuego (Argentina): two timber-quality N. pumilio forests, and four associated non-timber-quality stands (edge, N. antarctica, wetlands and streamside forests). Overstory structure and understory vegetation (species richness, frequencies, cover and biomass) were characterized during spring and summer seasons. Analysis of variance and multivariates were carried out. Overstory structure differed across the site types, with higher tree size, canopy closure and tree volume in timber-quality stands. Fifty-one understory plant species were observed, but understory variables varied with site types, especially wetlands (highest native and exotic richness, cover and biomass, and 25% of exclusive species). Site types were grouped in three: N. antarctica stands, streamside stands and the other N. pumilio forests according to multivariate analysis. Forty three percent of plants were distributed in all site types, and all timber-quality forest understory species were present in some associated non-timber-quality stands. Timber-quality N. pumilio forests have a marginal value for understory conservation compared to associated non-timber-quality stands, because these last include all the plants observed in timber-quality forests and also possess many exclusive species. Therefore, protection of associated non-timber-quality stands during forest management planning could increase understory conservation at landscape level, and these could be better reserves of understory diversity than retentions of timber-quality stands.     

Bird assemblages in pine plantations replacing native ecosystems in NW Patagonia

Forest plantations of exotic conifers represent an important economic activity in NW Patagonia, Argentina. However, there is a remarkable lack of information on the impact of forestry on native biodiversity. We analyzed the effect of Pinus ponderosa plantations on bird communities, considering different stand management practices (dense and sparse tree covers), and different landscape contexts where they are planted (Austrocedrus chilensis forest and steppe). Ultimately we wished to assess in which way plantations may be designed and managed to improve biodiversity conservation. Bird richness and abundance did not change significantly in the steppe, although community composition did, and was partially replaced by a new community, similar to that of ecotonal forests. In contrast, in the A. chilensis forest areas, species richness decreased in dense plantations, but bird community composition remained relatively constant when replacing the native forest with pine plantations. Also, in A. chilensis forest, stand management practices aiming at maintaining low tree densities permit the presence of many bird species from the original habitat. In the steppe area in turn, both dense and sparse plantations are unsuitable for most steppe species, thus it is necessary to manage them at higher scales, maintaining the connectivity of the native matrix to prevent the fragmentation of bird populations. We conclude that pine plantations can provide habitat for a substantial number of native bird species, and this feature varies both with management practices and with the landscape context of areas where afforestation occurs.     

Plant community ecology of Pinus sylvestris, an extirpated species reintroduced to Ireland

Plantation forests can make a significant contribution to the conservation of native biodiversity, especially where native forest cover is low. Ireland is used as a case study to explore the contribution to biodiversity made by stands of Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), a reintroduced species. Despite its disputed native status, P. sylvestris is being widely planted in semi-natural habitats in Ireland. The associated vegetation communities have not previously been described and their conservation value is unknown. Baseline information is needed to inform conservation and forest management strategies. Botanical surveys were carried out at 20 plots of P. sylvestris-dominated woodland and scrub throughout the Republic of Ireland. Vegetation, structural and environmental data were recorded. Data were analysed using non-parametric and multivariate statistical techniques and a synoptic table was prepared. P. sylvestris was found to be a non-specialist in terms of its environmental tolerances. β diversity among plots was high while α diversity within plots was low to moderate. The plots surveyed contained 14.2% of the Irish native flora. There was a low level of constancy of species. Four reasonably well defined vegetation communities were identified. Soil pH, altitude and slope had important roles in partitioning these vegetation types and soil pH was positively correlated with species richness. P. sylvestris is well established, well integrated and naturalising in Irish semi-natural habitats. Some of the associated vegetation communities corresponded to habitats of international conservation importance. This research demonstrates that stands of P. sylvestris represent an important resource for Ireland’s native botanical and habitat diversity.     

Importance of semi-natural habitats for the conservation of butterfly communities in landscapes dominated by pine plantations

While the area of plantation forests continues to increase worldwide, their contribution to the conservation of biodiversity is still controversial. There is a particular concern on the central role played by natural habitat remnants embedded within the plantation matrix in conserving species-rich insect communities. We surveyed butterflies in maritime pine plantation landscapes in south-western France in 83 plots belonging to seven habitat types (five successional stages of pine stands, native deciduous woodlands and herbaceous firebreaks). The effect of plot, habitat and landscape attributes on butterfly species richness, community composition and individual species were analysed with a General Linear Model (GLM), partial Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) and the IndVal method. The most important factors determining butterfly diversity and community composition were the presence of semi-natural habitats (deciduous woodlands and firebreaks) at the landscape scale and the composition of understorey vegetation at the plot scale. Pure effects of plot variables explained the largest part of community variation (12.8%), but landscape factors explained an additional, independent part (6.7%). Firebreaks were characterized by a higher species richness and both firebreaks and deciduous woodlands harboured species not or rarely found in pine stands. Despite the forest-dominated landscape, typical forest butterflies were rare and mainly found in the deciduous woodlands. Threatened species, such as Coenonympha oedippus and Euphydryas aurinia, were found in pine stands and in firebreaks, but were more abundant in the latter. In the studied plantation forest, the conservation of butterflies depends mainly on the preservation of semi-natural habitats, an adequate understorey management and the maintenance of soil moisture levels.     

Strategies for agrobiodiversity conservation and promotion: a case from Yunnan, China

This paper deals with strategies for agrobiodiversity conservation and promotion based on studies on four plant groups (selected from 50 plant groups) occurring in the Yunnan Province of China. These plants are edible konjac (Amorphophallus), medicinal Paris, Musella lasiocarpa and wild tea (Camellia sinensis and its wild relatives), including their cultivars and wild populations. After analyzing the target plants, we conclude that the following strategies should be adopted to conserve and promote agrobiodiversity: (1) in situ conservation of agrobiodiversity, including habitat protection of wild populations, maintenance of native species and varieties in traditional agroecosystems, and relevant environmental education; (2) ex situ conservation and promotion of agrobiodiversity, including establishment of living collections and germplasm banks, and introduction of species and varieties into agroecosystems for agricultural practice; and (3) promotion and conservation of agrobiodiversity through sustainable uses, including technique development of propagation, cultivation, pest and disease control, on farm and off farm management, and other activities such as new variety breeding and scientific studies. Strategies developed here will be helpful to conserve and promote agrobiodiversity at agroecosystem, species, variety or landrace, and management system levels.