Lymphatic endothelial cells, lymphangiogenesis, and extracellular matrix

Exciting studies involving the molecular regulation of lymphangiogenesis in lymphatic-associated disorders (e.g., wound healing, lymphedema and tumor metastasis) have focused renewed attention on the intrinsic relationship between lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) and extracellular matrix (ECM) microenvironment. ECM molecules and remodeling events play a key role in regulating lymphangiogenesis, and the "functionality"-relating molecules, especially hyaluronan, integrins, reelin, IL-7, and matrix metalloproteinases, provide the most fundamental and critical prerequisite for LEC growth, migration, tube formation, and survival, although lymphangiogenesis is directly or/and indirectly controlled by VEGF-C/-D/VEGFR- 3- Prox-1-, Syk/SLP76-, podoplanin/Ang-2/Nrp-2-, FOXC2-, and other signaling pathways in embryonic and pathological processes. New knowledge regarding the differentiation of initial lymphatics should enable improvements in understanding of a variety of cytokines, chemokines, and other factors. The lymphatic colocalization with histochemical staining by using the novel molecular markers (e.g., LYVE-1), along with subsequent injection technique with ferritin or some tracer, will reveal functional and structural features of newly formed and preexisting lymphatics. Growing recognition of the multiple functions of ECM and LEC molecules for important physiological and pathological events may be helpful in identifying the crucial changes in tissues subjected to lymph circulation and ultimately in the search for rational therapeutic approaches to prevent lymphatic-associated disorders.     

IL-3 induces expression of lymphatic markers Prox-1 and podoplanin in human endothelial cells

Factors determining lymphatic differentiation in the adult organism are not yet well characterized. We have made the observation that mixed primary cultures of dermal blood endothelial cells (BEC) and lymphatic endothelial cells (LEC) grown under standard conditions change expression of markers during subculture: After passage 6, they uniformly express LEC-specific markers Prox-1 and podoplanin. Using sorted cells, we show that LEC but not BEC constitutively express IL-3, which regulates Prox-1 and podoplanin expression in LEC. The addition of IL-3 to the medium of BEC cultures induces Prox-1 and podoplanin. Blocking IL-3 activity in LEC cultures results in a loss of Prox-1 and podoplanin expression. In conclusion, endogenous IL-3 is required to maintain the LEC phenotype in culture, and the addition of IL-3 to BEC appears to induce transdifferentiation of BEC into LEC.     

Segmental territories along the cardinal veins generate lymph sacs via a ballooning mechanism during embryonic lymphangiogenesis in mice

During lymphangiogenesis in the mammalian embryo, a subset of vascular endothelial cells in the cardinal veins is reprogrammed to adopt a lymphatic endothelial fate. The prevailing model of lymphangiogenesis contends that these lymphatic precursor cells migrate away from the cardinal veins and reassemble peripherally as lymph sacs from which a lymphatic vasculature is generated. However, this model fails to account for a number of observations that, as a result, have remained anecdotal. Here, we use optical projection tomography, confocal microscopy and in vivo live imaging to uncover three key stages of lymphatic vascular morphogenesis in the mouse embryo at high resolution. First, we define territories or "pre-lymphatic clusters" of Prox1-positive lymphatic endothelial progenitor cells along the antero-posterior axis of the cardinal veins. Second, these pre-lymphatic clusters undergo progressive extrusion ("ballooning") to generate primitive lymph sacs. Third, lymphatic vessels emerge by a combination of mechanisms including sprouting from the lymph sacs and direct delamination of streams of cells from the cardinal veins. Our data support a new model for lymphatic vascular patterning and morphogenesis, as a basis for identifying the molecular cues governing these processes.     

Rapamycin inhibition of CFA-induced lymphangiogenesis in PLN is independent of mast cells

Elucidation of the events responsible for the interaction between lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) and mast cells (MCs) may prove to be a valuable source for controlling lymphangiogenesis. In the present study, we compared immunohistochemical and RT-PCR findings of the popliteal lymph node (PLN) and footpad skin in C57BL/6J and WBB6F1 mice, the MC-deficient strain. The results indicated that MCs play certain role in complete Freund’s adjuvant-induced intranodal lymphangiogenesis. VEGF-A, VEGFR-2 and TNF-α were crucial factors in lymphangiogenesis both in the PLN and skin. Moreover, the in vivo administration of the specific mTOR inhibitor, rapamycin inhibited lymphangiogenesis independent of MCs in PLN rather than in the skin. Further study on anti-lymphangiogenic effect will contribute to our understanding of LEC and MC modulation in pathological lymphangiogenesis.     

Lymphangiogenesis and breast cancer metastasis

Breast cancer is one of the commonest malignancies in women in the western world. It spreads predominantly via the lymphatic system. However, the understanding of the formation of lymphatics, lymphangiogenesis, has been limited. This has been largely due to the previous lack of lymphatic specific markers. The most specific marker used in humans has been the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR-3). However, this is also found on blood vessel endothelium. The other vascular endothelial factor receptors (VEGFR-1 and -2) are primarily blood vessel receptors. More recently, novel, specific markers for lymphatics have been discovered, such as LYVE-1, prox I and podoplanin, enabling further research into this new field. Each of these new markers is described in detail. The article also outlines the current understanding in breast cancer metastasis, with an emphasis on the more recent research into lymphangiogenesis. Since these specific markers are now available, quantitation of lymphangiogenesis is now possible by using either immunohistochemistry or quantitative PCR approaches. In addition, to breast cancer, research into many other cancers is now possible using these methods and new markers. With this in mind, possible therapeutic strategies for the future are discussed.     

Inhibition of Lymphangiogenesis of Endothelial Progenitor Cells with VEGFR-3 siRNA Delivered with PEI-alginate Nanoparticles

Lymphangiogenesis is implicated in lymphatic metastasis of tumor cells. Recently, growing evidences show that endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are involved in lymphangiogenesis. This study has investigated effects of VEGF-C/VEGFR-3 (vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3) signaling pathway on EPC differentiation and effectiveness of inhibiting lymphatic formation of EPCs with VEGFR-3 siRNA delivered in PEI (polyethylenimine)-alginate nanoparticles. CD34⁺VEGFR-3⁺ EPCs were sorted from mononuclear cells of human cord blood. Under induction with VEGF-C, the cells differentiated toward lymphatic endothelial cells. The nanoparticles were formulated with 25 kDa branched PEI and alginate. The size and surface charge of PEI-alginate nanoparticles loading VEGFR-3 siRNA (N/P = 16) are 139.1 nm and 7.56 mV respectively. VEGFR-3 siRNA specifically inhibited expression of VEGFR-3 mRNA in the cells. After treatment with PEI-alginate/siRNA nanocomplexes, EPCs could not differentiate into lymphatic endothelial cells, and proliferation, migration and lymphatic formation of EPC-derived cells were suppressed significantly. These results demonstrate that VEGFR-3 signaling plays an important role in differentiation of CD34⁺VEGFR-3⁺ EPCs. VEGFR-3 siRNA delivered with PEI-alginate nanoparticles can effectively inhibit differentiation and lymphangiogenesis of EPCs. Inhibiting VEGFR-3 signaling with siRNA/nanocomplexes would be a potential therapy for suppression of tumor lymphangiogenesis and lymphatic metastasis.     

Soluble VEGFR-2: an antilymphangiogenic variant of VEGF receptors

The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) family of secreted proteins and their receptors are major regulators of blood vessel development (hemangiogenesis) and lymphatic vessel development (lymphangiogenesis). VEGF acts through a complex system of receptor tyrosine kinases, which can be membrane bound or soluble. New data concerning the receptor system are still emerging, thus contributing to the complexity of the system. Very recently a soluble form of VEGFR-2, termed sVEGFR-2, which is a result of alternative splicing, has been discovered. Earlier, it has been shown that a secreted/soluble form of VEGFR-1, termed sVEGFR-1, is produced by alternative splicing and exerts an antihemangiogenic effect by binding VEGF-A. The newly discovered spliced variant of sVEGFR-2 binds the lymphangiogenic growth factor VEGF-C and thus inhibits VEGF-C-induced activation of VEGFR-3, consequently inhibiting lymphatic endothelial cell proliferation. Its inactivation in murine embryos permits hyperplasia of dermal lymphatics and invasion of lymphatics into the cornea. Tumor lymphangiogenesis seems to influence the metastatic behavior of malignant cells. A correlation has been found between the downregulation of sVEGFR-2 and the malignant progression of neuroblastoma, which is characterized by lymphogenic metastases in progressed stages. Data show that lymphangiogenesis is regulated by both activators and inhibitors, and its balance is crucial in health and disease.     

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus induces sustained levels of vascular endothelial growth factors A and C early during in vitro infection of human microvascular dermal endothelial cells: biological implications

Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), a vascular tumor associated with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection, is characterized by spindle-shaped endothelial cells, inflammatory cells, cytokines, growth and angiogenic factors, and angiogenesis. KS spindle cells are believed to be of the lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC) type. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV, or human herpesvirus 8) is etiologically linked to KS, and in vitro KSHV infection of primary human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMVEC-d) is characterized by the induction of preexisting host signal cascades, sustained expression of latency-associated genes, transient expression of a limited number of lytic genes, sustained induction of NF-κB and several cytokines, and growth and angiogenic factors. KSHV induced robust vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) and VEGF-C gene expression as early as 30 min postinfection (p.i.) in serum-starved HMVEC-d, which was sustained throughout the observation period of 72 h p.i. Significant amounts of VEGF-A and -C were also detected in the culture supernatant of infected cells. VEGF-A and -C were also induced by UV-inactivated KSHV and envelope glycoprotein gpK8.1A, thus suggesting a role for virus entry stages in the early induction of VEGF and requirement of KSHV viral gene expression for sustained induction. Exogenous addition of VEGF-A and -C increased KSHV DNA entry into target cells and moderately increased latent ORF73 and lytic ORF50 promoter activation and gene expression. KSHV infection also induced the expression of lymphatic markers Prox-1 and podoplanin as early as 8 h p.i., and a paracrine effect was seen in the neighboring uninfected cells. Similar observations were also made in the pure blood endothelial cell (BEC)-TIME cells, thus suggesting that commitment to the LEC phenotype is induced early during KSHV infection of blood endothelial cells. Treatment with VEGF-C alone also induced Prox-1 expression in the BEC-TIME cells. Collectively, these studies show that the in vitro microenvironments of KSHV-infected endothelial cells are enriched, with VEGF-A and -C molecules playing key roles in KSHV biology, such as increased infection and gene expression, as well as in angiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis, thus recapitulating the microenvironment of early KS lesions.     

VEGF-C alters barrier function of cultured lymphatic endothelial cells through a VEGFR-3-dependent mechanism

BACKGROUND: The lymphatic endothelium is an important semi-permeable barrier separating lymph from the interstitial space. However, there is currently a limited understanding of the lymphatic endothelial barrier and the mechanisms of lymph formation. The objectives of this study were to investigate the potential active role of lymphatic endothelial cells in barrier regulation, and to test whether the endothelial cell agonists VEGF-A and VEGF-C can alter lymphatic endothelial barrier function. METHODS AND RESULTS: Cultured adult human dermal microlymphatic endothelial cells (HMLEC-d) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were respectively used as models of lymphatic and vascular endothelium. Transendothelial electrical resistance (TER) of endothelial monolayers served as an index of barrier function. Cells were treated with VEGF-A, VEGF-C, or the VEGFR-3 selective mutant VEGF-C156S. MAZ51 was used to inhibit VEGFR-3 signaling. The results show that while VEGF-A causes a time-dependent decrease in TER in HUVEC, there is no response in HMLEC-d. In contrast, VEGF-C and VEGF-C156S cause a similar decrease in TER in HMLEC-d that is not observed in HUVEC. These results corresponded to the protein expression of VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 in these cell types, determined by Western blotting. In addition, the VEGF-C- and VEGF-C156S-induced TER changes were inhibited by MAZ51. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate differential responses of the lymphatic and vascular endothelial barriers to VEGF-A and VEGF-C. Furthermore, our data suggest that VEGF-C alters lymphatic endothelial function through a mechanism involving VEGFR-3.     

Platelet activation receptor CLEC-2 regulates blood/lymphatic vessel separation by inhibiting proliferation, migration, and tube formation of lymphatic endothelial cells

The platelet activation receptor CLEC-2 plays crucial roles in thrombosis/hemostasis, tumor metastasis, and lymphangiogenesis, although its role in thrombosis/hemostasis remains controversial. An endogenous ligand for CLEC-2, podoplanin, is expressed in lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs). We and others have reported that CLEC-2-deficiency is lethal at mouse embryonic/neonatal stages associated with blood-filled lymphatics, indicating that CLEC-2 is essential for blood/lymphatic vessel separation. However, its mechanism, and whether CLEC-2 in platelets is necessary for this separation, remains unknown. We found that specific deletion of CLEC-2 from platelets leads to the misconnection of blood/lymphatic vessels. CLEC-2(+/+) platelets, but not by CLEC-2(-/-) platelets, inhibited LEC migration, proliferation, and tube formation but had no effect on human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Additionally, supernatants from activated platelets significantly inhibited these three functions in LECs, suggesting that released granule contents regulate blood/lymphatic vessel separation. Bone morphologic protein-9 (BMP-9), which we found to be present in platelets and released upon activation, appears to play a key role in regulating LEC functions. Only BMP-9 inhibited tube formation, although other releasates including transforming growth factor-β and platelet factor 4 inhibited proliferation and/or migration. We propose that platelets regulate blood/lymphatic vessel separation by inhibiting the proliferation, migration, and tube formation of LECs, mainly because of the release of BMP-9 upon activation by CLEC-2/podoplanin interaction.     

Cell-Cell Interactions Influence Vascular Reprogramming by Prox1 during Embryonic Development

Lymphangiogenesis is a highly regulated process that involves the reprogramming of venous endothelial cells into early lymphatic endothelial cells. This reprogramming not only displays a polarized expression pattern from the cardinal vein, but also demonstrates vascular specificity; early lymphatics only develop from the cardinal vein and not the related dorsal aorta. In our transgenic model of lymphangiogenesis, we demonstrate that Prox1 overexpression has the ability to reprogram venous endothelium but not early arterial endothelial cells in vivo, in spite of the fact that Prox1 expression is forced onto both vascular beds. Our observations suggest that this specificity during embryogenesis may be due to cell-cell interactions between the developing arterial endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells. These conclusions have far reaching implications on how we understand the vascular specificity of lymphangiogenesis.     

Lymphatic network and lymphangiogenesis in the gastric wall.

A family of growth factors highly specific for endothelial cells was identified more than 10 years ago, in which the receptor of vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGFR-3) is implicated in the regulation of lymphatic development and regeneration. Comparative studies on the lymphatic network and lymphangiogenesis have been done mainly using combined 5'-nucleotidase (5'-Nase) enzyme and VEGFR-3 immunohistochemical approaches in adult and fetal gastric walls. Developing lymphatic networks represented fewer blind ends and branches than mature networks in whole-mount preparations. Many circular lymphatic-like structures exhibited VEGFR-3 expression and weak 5'-Nase activity in the early embryonic stage, showing visible morphological properties in the lymphatic endothelium. These newly formed lymphatics showed an obvious accumulation in the submucosa and serosa and a variation in the intensity of VEGFR-3 binding to endothelial cells among samples. A reaction product for anti-VEGFR-3 was found on the luminal surface of endothelial cells and on the membrane of some organelles and intraluminal lymphocytes. These findings indicate that an active proliferating feature of the clustered developing lymphatics may create a favorable environment for their sprouting and growth, which may serve as a functional requirement for lymph drainage in the region.     

Vascular endothelial growth factor-C stimulates the lymphatic pump by a VEGF receptor-3-dependent mechanism

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-C plays an important role in lymphangiogenesis; however, functional responses of lymphatic vessels to VEGF-C have not been characterized. We tested the hypothesis that VEGF-C-induced activation of VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-3 increases lymphatic pump output. We examined the in vivo pump activity of rat mesenteric collecting lymphatics using intravital microscopy during basal conditions and during treatment with 1 nM recombinant VEGF-C, the selective VEGFR-3 agonist VEGF-Cys(156)Ser mutation (C156S; 1 nM), or 0.1 nM VEGF-A. Their specific responses were also analyzed during selective inhibition of VEGFR-3 with MAZ-51. Contraction frequency, end-diastolic diameter, end-systolic diameter, stroke volume index, pump flow index, and ejection fraction were evaluated. We also assessed arteriolar diameter and microvascular extravasation of FITC-albumin. The results show that both VEGF-C and VEGF-C156S significantly increased contraction frequency, end-diastolic diameter, stroke volume index, and pump flow index in a time-dependent manner. VEGF-A caused a different response characterized by a significantly increased stroke volume after 30 min of treatment. MAZ-51 (5 muM) caused tonic constriction and decreased contraction frequency. In addition, 0.5 and 5 muM MAZ-51 attenuated VEGF-C- and VEGF-C156S-induced lymphatic pump activation. VEGF-A caused vasodilation of arterioles, whereas VEGF-C and VEGF-C156S did not significantly alter arteriolar diameter. Also, VEGF-A and VEGF-C caused increased microvascular permeability, whereas VEGF-C156S did not. Our results demonstrate that VEGF-C increases lymphatic pumping through VEGFR-3. Furthermore, changes in microvascular hemodynamics are not required for VEGFR-3-mediated changes in lymphatic pump activity.     

Dual origin of avian lymphatics

The earliest signs of the lymphatic vascular system are the lymph sacs, which develop adjacent to specific embryonic veins. It has been suggested that sprouts from the lymph sacs form the complete lymphatic vascular system. We have studied the origin of the jugular lymph sacs (JLS), the dermal lymphatics and the lymph hearts of avian embryos. In day 6.5 embryos, the JLS is an endothelial-lined sinusoidal structure. The lymphatic endothelial cells (LECs) stain (in the quail) positive for QH1 antibody and soybean agglutinin. As early as day 4, the anlagen of the JLS can be recognized by their Prox1 expression. Prox1 is found in the jugular section of the cardinal veins, and in scattered cells located in the dermatomes along the cranio-caudal axis and in the splanchnopleura. In the quail, such cells are positive for Prox1 and QH1. In the jugular region, the veins co-express the angiopoietin receptor Tie2. Quail-chick-chimera studies show that the peripheral parts of the JLS form by integration of cells from the paraxial mesoderm. Intra-venous application of DiI-conjugated acetylated low-density lipoprotein into day 4 embryos suggests a venous origin of the deep parts of the JLS. Superficial lymphatics are directly derived from the dermatomes, as shown by dermatome grafting. The lymph hearts in the lumbo-sacral region develop from a plexus of Prox1-positive lymphatic capillaries. Both LECs and muscle cells of the lymph hearts are of somitic origin. In sum, avian lymphatics are of dual origin. The deep parts of the lymph sacs are derived from adjacent veins, the superficial parts of the JLS and the dermal lymphatics from local lymphangioblasts.     

Afferent and efferent interfaces of lymph nodes are distinguished by expression of lymphatic endothelial markers and chemokines

BACKGROUND: Lymph nodes (LNs) are important sites of connection between the sampled peripheral tissues, the many cells of the immune system, and the blood. The organization of the interface between the afferent and efferent lymphatic vasculature and LN parenchyma is incompletely understood, and obtaining a better understanding of these tissue microenvironments will contribute to an improved understanding of overall lymphatic function. METHODS AND RESULTS: We used histologic approaches to define the distributions of cells expressing lymphatic endothelial cell (LEC) markers in LNs from healthy, simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infected, or Mycobacterium tuberculosis infected cynomolgus macaques. Cells at the afferent and efferent interfaces of LNs from all animals showed differential expression of LEC markers, with podoplanin, Prox-1, and VEGFR3 expressed in both microenvironments, but with LYVE-1 expressed only at the efferent interface. The chemokine CCL20 was uniquely expressed at the afferent interface by cells co-expressing podoplanin, and this expression was increased during SIV or M. tuberculosis infection. In contrast, only a small proportion of cells expressing the CCR7 ligand CCL21 co-expressed podoplanin. Treatment of model LECs with the TLR3 ligand poly(I:C) or gamma-irradiated M. tuberculosis increased production of CCL20 without altering CCL21 or LEC marker expression. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides a comprehensive mapping of the organization of the lymphatic endothelial network entering and exiting LNs in health and in chronic infectious diseases in a nonhuman primate model. The differences we have defined between the afferent and efferent interfaces of LNs could inform the future design of vaccines and immunotherapies.     

Characterization and microarray analysis of genes in human lymphatic endothelial cells from patients with breast cancer

We successfully isolated human lymphatic endothelial cells from afferent lymph vessels (HALEC) of sentinel lymph nodes in patients with breast cancer by using trypsin digestion. The cells were cultured in EGM-2 medium with 10% FBS under the condition of 5% O2, 5% CO2, and 90% N2 at 37 degrees C. The cultured cells exhibited a monolayer with cobblestone appearance and a marked phagocytosis of Dil-Ac-LDL. Immunohistochemical lymphatic vessel markers were also found, such as podoplanin, LYVE-1, VEGF receptor 3, and Prox-1. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis also showed that podoplanin, VEGF R3, and Prox-1 mRNA were expressed more selectively in the cultured cells. The cells had marked immunoreactivity to antisera of ecNOS, iNOS, COX1, and weak reactivity of COX2. Constitutively expressed cell-type specific genes of the cultured cells were also analyzed by oligonucleotide microarray methods. Compared with human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC), the cells selectively expressed 88 known genes such as angiopoietin-like 4, oxygen radicals-related enzymes, and adhesion molecules and the related proteoglycans. The findings suggest that the cultured cells seem to be human lymphatic endothelial cells. In conclusion, the isolated, cannulated and enzymatic digested method we adopted for culture of human lymphatic endothelial cells may be easy and useful for investigating cellular, molecular biological, and genomic properties of the cells.     

Aberrant Lymphatic Endothelial Progenitors in Lymphatic Malformation Development

Lymphatic malformations (LMs) are vascular anomalies thought to arise from dysregulated lymphangiogenesis. These lesions impose a significant burden of disease on affected individuals. LM pathobiology is poorly understood, hindering the development of effective treatments. In the present studies, immunostaining of LM tissues revealed that endothelial cells lining aberrant lymphatic vessels and cells in the surrounding stroma expressed the stem cell marker, CD133, and the lymphatic endothelial protein, podoplanin. Isolated patient-derived CD133+ LM cells expressed stem cell genes (NANOG, Oct4), circulating endothelial cell precursor proteins (CD90, CD146, c-Kit, VEGFR-2), and lymphatic endothelial proteins (podoplanin, VEGFR-3). Consistent with a progenitor cell identity, CD133+ LM cells were multipotent and could be differentiated into fat, bone, smooth muscle, and lymphatic endothelial cells in vitro. CD133+ cells were compared to CD133− cells isolated from LM fluids. CD133− LM cells had lower expression of stem cell genes, but expressed circulating endothelial precursor proteins and high levels of lymphatic endothelial proteins, VE-cadherin, CD31, podoplanin, VEGFR-3 and Prox1. CD133− LM cells were not multipotent, consistent with a differentiated lymphatic endothelial cell phenotype. In a mouse xenograft model, CD133+ LM cells differentiated into lymphatic endothelial cells that formed irregularly dilated lymphatic channels, phenocopying human LMs. In vivo, CD133+ LM cells acquired expression of differentiated lymphatic endothelial cell proteins, podoplanin, LYVE1, Prox1, and VEGFR-3, comparable to expression found in LM patient tissues. Taken together, these data identify a novel LM progenitor cell population that differentiates to form the abnormal lymphatic structures characteristic of these lesions, recapitulating the human LM phenotype. This LM progenitor cell population may contribute to the clinically refractory behavior of LMs.